CONSTRUCTIVE  BIBLE  STUDIES 

EDITED    BY 

WILLIAM  R.  HARPER  AND  ERNEST  D.  BURTON 


THE   PRIESTLY   ELEMENT  IN  THE 
OLD   TESTAMENT 


BY 

WILLIAM  R.  HARPER 


Ex  Libris 
ft  K.  OGDEN 


THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

AN  AID  TO  HISTORICAL  STUDY 


FOR    USE    IN   ADVANCED    BIBLE    CLASSES 


WILLIAM  RAINEY  HARPER 

PEOFES8OE  OF  SEMITIC  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURES 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION 


CONSTRUCTIVE    BIBLE   STUDIES 
COLLEGE  SERIES 


CHICAGO 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
1905 


Copyright  igoz,  7905 
BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORN1 
SANTA  BARBARA 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

THIS  treatment  of  the  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
intended  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  students  who  wish  to  take  up  the 
questions  relating  to  the  subject  from  an  historical  point  of  view.  The 
materials  for  a  preliminary  study  of  the  various  topics  are  gathered 
together,  and  arranged  with  suggestions  as  to  order  and  method  of 
procedure. 

It  is  thought  that  the  work  proposed  is  within  the  reach  of  the  more 
mature  pupils  in  the  Sunday  school,  although  the  needs  of  college  and 
theological  students  have  been  kept  especially  in  mind. 

The  general  results  of  modern  historical  criticism  have  been  taken 
as  a  basis  for  the  work,  since  it  is  only  from  the  point  of  view  of  his- 
tory that  these  subjects  may  now  be  considered  intelligently.  Each 
special  topic  connected  with  the  general  subject  of  the  Priestly  Ele- 
ment furnishes  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  growth  and  development 
of  Israelitish  and  Jewish  thought  under  the  controlling  influence  of  a 
conception  of  God  which  became  more  and  more  pure  with  the 
advancing  centuries. 

Four  methods  of  treatment  have  been  employed,  each  being 
deemed  best  adapted  to  the  case  in  hand,  viz.:  in  Chapter  I,  a  sys- 
tematic statement  of  the  scope  of  the  Priestly  Element ;  in  Chapters 
II-IV,  an  historical  statement  covering  in  barest  outline  the  story 
of  the  Priestly  Element  as  a  whole,  in  its  progress  and  development ; 
in  Chapters  V-XI,  a  classified  and  comparative  examination  (indi- 
cated by  questions  and  suggestions  based  upon  the  material  presented) 
of  the  more  important  special  factors  which,  taken  together,  con- 
stitute the  Priestly  Element;  in  Chapters  XII-XIX,  a  critical  exam- 
ination of  the  literature  produced  by  the  Priests,  and  of  its 
essential  significance.  The  appendix  on  the  vocabulary  of  wor- 
ship will  be  found  serviceable  to  those  who  wish  to  enter  somewhat 
carefully  into  a  consideration  of  the  details.  In  Appendix  B  there 
will  be  found  a  classified  list  of  the  most  important  books,  while  in 
Appendix  C  the  more  valuable  recent  literature  (since  1901)  has  been 
indicated. 

Some  experience  in  the  use  of  this  manual  in  the  class-room  seems 
to  indicate  that  it  furnishes  an  opportunity  whereby  both  instructor 


VI  PREFACE 

and  pupil  may  work  with  greatest  freedom.  It  is  not  a  text-book;  nor 
is  it  merely  a  syllabus.  It  may  be  adapted  to  almost  every  possible 
method  of  teaching. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  indicate  definitely  and  fully  the 
more  accessible  literature  on  each  topic.  I  wish  to  express  my  appreci- 
ation of  the  assistance  rendered  me  by  my  colleague,  Dr.  John  M.  P. 
Smith,  especially  in  the  arrangement  and  verification  of  the  scriptural 
references,  and  the  references  to  the  literature  on  the  various  topics. 
For  obvious  reasons  the  latter  have  been  arranged  chronologically,  the 
literature  in  languages  other  than  English  being  placed  by  itself. 

In  this  more  complete  form  (Chapters  XII-XIX  and  the  Appen- 
dixes, constituting  the  new  matter  added  to  the  first  edition)  it  is 
hoped  that  an  outline  has  been  prepared  which  will  assist  many 
students  in  their  desire  to  gain  a  reasonable  familiarity  with  a  really 
large  and  complex  subject. 

WILLIAM  R.  HARPER. 

February  22,  7905. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

THE  GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT. 
CHAPTER  I. — The  general  scope  of  the  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament       i 

PART  II. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

CHAPTER  II.— The  history  of  worship  in  the  earlier  Old  Testament  period  .  .  13 
CHAPTER  III. — The  history  of  worship  in  the  middle  Old  Testament  period  .  .  27 
CHAPTER  IV. — The  history  of  worship  in  the  later  Old  Testament  period  ...  42 

PART  III. 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  LAWS  AND  USAGES  OF  WORSHIP. 

CHAPTER  V. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  priest,  considered  compara- 
tively   61 

CHAPTER  VI. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  place  of  worship,  con- 
sidered comparatively 74 

CHAPTER  VII. —  The  laws  and  usages  concerning  sacrifice,  considered  compara- 
tively   83 

CHAPTER  VIII. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  feasts,  considered  compara- 
tively   94 

CHAPTER  IX. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  sabbath  and  kindred  insti- 
tutions, considered  comparatively 108 

CHAPTER  X. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  clean  and  unclean,  considered 

comparatively 119 

CHAPTER  XI. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  prayer  and  related  forms  of 

worship,  considered  comparatively 131 

PART  IV. 

THE  LITERATURE  OF  WORSHIP— THE  LEGAL  LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER  XII. — The  Deuteronomic  code  of  laws 155 

CHAPTER  XIII. — Ezekiel's  contribution 170 

CHAPTER  XIV. — The  priestly  code  of  laws 180 

vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

PART  V. 

THE  LITERATURE  OP  WORSHIP— THE  HISTORICAL  LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER  XV. — The  priestly  narrative  in  the  Hexateuch 195 

CHAPTER  XVI.— The  books  of  Chronicles 208 

CHAPTER  XVII. — The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 218 

PART  VI. 

THE  LITERATURE  OF  WORSHIP -THE  HYMNAL  LITERATURE. 
CHAPTER  XVIII. — The  priestly  element  in  the  Psalter 233 

PART  VII. 

THE  PERMANENT  VALUE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT. 
CHAPTER  XIX. — The  essential  significance  of  the  priestly  element    .....  257 

APPENDIXES. 

A.  The  vocabulary  of  worship;  lists  of  the  more  important  words 273 

B.  Classified  lists  of  important  books 280 

C.  New  literature  on  the  priestly  element 282 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

§  i.  Three  Elements  Enter  into  Religion.  —  The  reli- 
gion of  an  individual  or  nation  depends  upon  the  promi- 
nence given  to  one  or  another  of  these  elements : 

(1)  Worship,  or,  more  technically,  cult,  a  word  which   Pss.  103:15150. 
expresses  the  general  attitude  of  the  individual  or  group 

of  individuals  toward  an  outside  higher  world  of  super- 
natural or  divine  existence,  and  includes  the  outward 
acts  that  in  various  forms  symbolize  the  inward  thought. 

(2)  Belief,  or,  more  technically,  creed,  a  word  which   Deut.  6:4; 

,    John  3 : 36. 
expresses  the  peculiar  intellectual  position  entertained 

by  an  individual  or  group  of  individuals  concerning  cer- 
tain facts  supposed  to  be  essential,  and  their  explana- 
tion. 

(3)  Conduct,  or,  more  technically,  ethics,  which  includes  Mic.  6:8; 

i     r      ..  ,•  r  Isa- 1:16,  17: 

all  the  acts  and  feelings  of  man  in  so  far  as  they  are  James  1:37. 
related  to  his  duties  to  himself  and  to  his  fellows,  and 
to  the  fundamental  ideas  of  right  and  wrong. 

§2.  Three  Great  Channels  of  Revelation  are  found  in 
the  Old  Testament ;  through  these,  separately  and 
together,  there  has  come  down  to  us  a  wonderful  story 
of  the  interworking  of  God  and  man.  These  are : 

(1)  The  word  of  the  prophet,  including  the  utter-  Jer.  18:18; 
ances  through  centuries  of  that  unique  order  established 

to  give  to  the  Hebrew  nation  and  to  the  world  the 
"word"  of  God. 

(2)  The  counsel  of  the  sage,  including  the  wise  say-  Jer.  18:18; 
ings  and  philosophical  teachings  (in  the  form  of  proverbs,      30;  8-14'. 
riddles,  essays,  dialogues,  etc.)  found,  for  example,  in  the 

books  of  Proverbs,  Job,  and  Ecclesiastes. 

(3)  The  instruction  (or  law)  of  the  priest,  which  forms  Jer.  18:18; 
the  subject  of  consideration  in  this  and  the  following 
studies. 

§3.  The  Place  of  Worship  is  First  of  All  to  be  Noticed. 
—  In  ancient  times  because  it  seemed  to  men  that  certain 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


i  Kings  14:33; 
i  Chron.  21 : 39 ; 
Exod.  19:2,3, 12. 

Gen.  13:6;  13:18. 
Gen.  16: 13,  14. 


Gen.  31:44-54; 
Gen.  28:18-33. 


Exod.  30:34-36; 

1  Kings  7  =  48; 

2  Kings  16:10-15; 
Exod.  37: 1-8; 

i  Kings  3:38-30. 


Josh. 4:11; 
i  Sam.  4:3-6; 
3  Sam.  6:3-17; 
Exod.  35:10-31; 
Exod.  35:33. 


2  Sam.  7:3-6; 
Exod.,  chap.  a6; 

Exod.  33: 7-9; 
Numb.  17 -.4,12,13, 


i  Kings  6:  i,  2,11- 

M,  37,  38; 
Ezek.  43:1-13; 
Hag.  1:4-14; 
Ezra  3: 13, 13; 

6:13-18. 


places  were  more  favored  by  the  gods  than  were  others,  in 
modern  times  because  men  fancy  that  a  certain  environ- 
ment is  especially  conducive  to  the  spirit  of  worship,  the 
place  has  always  been  a  subject  of  greatest  importance. 
The  place  was  in  early  days  something  connected  with 
nature  : 

(1)  High  places,  or  hills,  were  especially  sought  as 
being  the  abode  of  God. 

(2)  Trees  of  a  notable  character  are  frequently  referred 
to  as  connected  with  worship. 

(3)  Springs,  or  wells,  are  places  by  the  side  of  which 
angels  were  thought  to  dwell. 

(4)  Sacred  stones  are  mentioned  as  places  to  which 
the  god  came  to  meet  his  worshiper,  and  on  which  food 
was  placed  or  libations  of  oil  poured  out. 

In  each  of  these  places  Jehovah  had  shown  his  pres- 
ence, and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  hill  or  tree  or 
spring  or  stone  was  sacred.  (From  Numb.  22:41  it  is  to 
be  seen  that  this  idea  of  sacred  places  was  found  among 
other  nations;  cf.  also  Isa.  16: 12.) 

The  place  was  also  often  something  of  a  more  or  less 
artificial  character,  as  is  seen  in  the  use  of — 

(5)  The  altar,  which  was  sometimes  only  of  loose 
earth  thrown  up  ;   at  others,  of  unhewn  stone ;  at  still 
others,  of  gold  and  precious  stones.     This  altar  was  the 
refuge  and  asylum  of  him  who  fled  the  hand  of  ven- 
geance, the  witness  of  vows,  the  place  on  which  the  sac- 
rifice was  laid. 

(6)  The  ark,  or  chest,  a  sacred  box  in  which  certain 
sacred  things  were  deposited ;  which  was  used  in  case  of 
war,  because  it  was  thought  to  afford  protection  ;  and 
was  designated  as  a  place  of  communion  with  God. 

(7)  The  tent,  or  tabernacle,  a  dwelling  in  which  the 
ark  was  preserved,  and  around  which  the  holiest  associa- 
tions clustered.    Moses  made  most  practical  use  of  it,  and 
it  came  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  Hebrew  thought 
and  tradition. 

(8)  The  temple,  which  with  the  progress  of  civilization 
(the  establishment  of  courts  and  the  building  of  palaces) 
took  the  place  of  the  tent,  as  being  more  dignified  than 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  3 

a  tent.  There  was  (a)  Solomon's  temple,  erected  at  a 
significant  period  of  national  development;  (<5)  the  tem- 
ple of  Ezekiel's  vision,  which  was  destined  to  play  an 
important  part  in  the  history  of  Israel's  religious 
thought ;  and  (c)  the  second  temple,  erected  with  some 
disappointment,  after  the  return  from  exile. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  once  more,  that  communion  with  Exod.  a.-a-s; 
God  is  sought  and  obtained  in  connection  with  natural 
places  (hills,  trees,  springs,  stones)  and  with  places 
constructed  by  man  (altars,  ark,  tent,  temple).  It  will 
be  at  a  later  time,  when  temples  are  destroyed,  men 
are  scattered,  groups  living  here  and  there,  when  the 
realistic  conception  gives  place  to  the  idealistic,  and 
the  material  to  the  spiritual,  that  synagogues  and 
churches  will  spring  into  existence,  and,  thus  in  still 
anpther  form,  satisfy  the  inward  craving  of  humanity 
for  a  sacred  place,  in  which  to  offer  worship  to  the  unseen 
powers. 

§  4.  The  Priest,  or  Minister  of  worship,  was  the  second 
necessity  of  worship,  the  first  being  the  place.  It  was  the 
Driest -who  conducted  the  worship. 

(1)  His  function  was  threefold:  to  carry  the  ark,  to  Deut.  10:8; 

Judg.  17:7-13} 

minister  to  Jehovah,  to  bless  in  his  name.     In  the  earliest      18:3-6; 

,       ,  .       .  .          .  ,  ,      .  .      Lev.  8:1-10. 

times  the  need  of  having  some  such  priest  was  felt,  his 

presence  being  thought  to  be  attended  with  peculiar 
blessing. 

(2)  The  priest-idea  became  so  strong  in  Israel  that  Deut.  i4:a; 

Exod.  19:6; 
the  nation  itself  was  understood  to  be  a  nation  of  priests,  Ezra  7:21, 25, 26, 

or  a  priestly  nation,  set  apart  to  minister  to  the  other 
nations  of  the  world.  After  the  exile,  kings  ceased  to  sit 
on  Israel's  throne  ;  and  priests,  under  the  form  of  a 
hierarchy,  controlled  the  affairs  of  the  nation.  This  fact 
shows  how  great  a  role  the  priest  played  in  Israelitish 
history. 

(3)  Besides  the  priests  and  prophets  who  served  and   i  Kings  18:19-22; 

•  2  Kings  23:4,5; 

spoke  for  Jehovah,  there  were  at  many  times  in  Israel  s  Ezek.  8:15,16. 

history  priests  and  prophets  whose  lives  were  devoted  to 
the  service  of  other  gods. 

§  5.  Sacrifice  was  the  most  significant  act  of  worship 
in  ancient  times. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 


Gen.  18: 1-8; 
i  Sam.  i :  3-8; 

9:33-35; 
i  Chron.  16:1-3. 


Ps.  51: 18, 19; 
Isa.  i:  11-17; 
Lev.,  chaps.  1-7; 

8-10;  n;  13-15; 

etc. 


Gen.  8:30; 
Lev.,  chaps.  4,9. 


Lev.  3: 1-6; 
Judg.  20: 36. 


Gen.  35: 14; 
Exod.  39:  40,  41; 
Numb.  38:  7. 

Exod.  30:  i,  7-9; 
Numb.  4:16. 


Lev.,  chaps.  5,  7, 

M; 
Numb.  6: 13. 


(1)  At  first  this  was  a  social  meal,  a  banquet  in  which 
the  offerer  and  his  friends  participated  and  to  which  the 
deity  was  invited.     There  are  frequent  references  to  such 
sacrificial  meals  in  which  the  members  of  a  family,  or  of 
a  clan,  or,  indeed,  of  a  whole  nation  took  part.    This  meal 
was  full   of  joy,  sometimes  boisterous.     Those  who  par- 
ticipated were  eating  and  drinking  with  the  deity ;  it  was 
a  communion  of  the  worshiper  and  his  god. 

(2)  In  later  times  sacrifice  became  more  formal,  and 
gradually  grew  into  an  exclusively  religious  act.     The 
prophets  strongly  denounced  sacrifice  in  which  the  true 
spirit  of  worship  was  lacking,  or  which  in  itself,  without  a 
proper  life,  was  thought  to  gain  Jehovah's  favor.     The 
book  of  Leviticus  is  devoted  to  the  subject  of  sacrifice, 
viz.,  the  method,  the  kinds,  etc.,  etc.     This  more  formal 
and  exclusively  religious  conception  of  sacrifice  came  to 
prevail  universally  in  the  last  centuries  of  Israel's  history. 

(3)  Several  different  kinds  of  offerings  or  sacrifice 
were  distinguished,  according  as  each  expressed  a  par- 
ticular purpose,  or  was  presented  by  a  particular  method ; 
among  these  were : 

(a)  The  burnt-offering,  which  consisted  of  the  burning 
of  a  whole  animal  of  the  proper  kind  upon  an  altar  as  an 
offering  to  Jehovah. 

(&)  The  peace-offering,  which  was  also  an  animal  sacri- 
fice, but  differed  from  the  burnt-offering  in  that  it 
provided  for  the  giving  of  only  the  blood  and  certain 
specified  parts  of  the  animal  to  Jehovah,  the  rest  being 
eaten  by  the  sacrificial  guests. 

(c)  The  drink-offering,  which  was  a  libation  of  wine, 
or  oil,  usually  made  in  connection  with  other  offerings. 

(d)  The  incense-offering,  in  which  fragrant  spices  were 
burned  with  the  thought  that  the  rising  fragrance  was 
acceptable  to  Jehovah. 

(<?)  The  trespass-offering,  which  was  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expiating  offenses  against  Jehovah  and  man  in 
which  the  damage  could  be  estimated  and  covered  by 
compensation  ;  the  blood  of  the  animal  was  poured  out 
to  Jehovah,  the  fat  was  burned  on  the  altar,  and  the  rest 
was  the  perquisite  of  the  priests. 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  5 

(/)    The  sin-offering,  which  occupied  a  very  important  Lev.  4:24-34; 

w  Lev.,  chap.  16; 

place  in  the  cultus  and  of  which  the  emphasis  placed  Numb.,  chap.  7; 

15  :  27. 
upon  the  shedding  of  blood  is  a  conspicuous  feature  ; 

the  specifications  for  this  part  of  the  ritual  are  very  com- 
plete and  detailed. 


(V)   The  wave-offering,  consisting  of  certain  portions  Deut.  12:6-17; 

Numb.  15:19-21; 

of  the  sacrifice  that  were  given  over  to  the  priests  and  Numb.  18:8-29; 

Bzod.  29:  27,  28. 

were  waved  by  them  before  the  altar  as  a  token  of  the 
fact  that  they  belonged  to  Jehovah,  but  had  been  given 
over  by  him  to  the  priests. 

(4)  Great  care  was  taken  as  to  the  materials  which  Exod.  20:24; 

29:  40;  30:  i  ; 
might  enter  into  a  sacrifice.    These  were  in  general  flesh,  Lev.  2:1,  4,  13; 

fine  flour  or  meal,  incense,  oil,  wine,  cakes  of  dough, 
salt.  Here  again  important  conceptions  were  associated 
with  each  of  the  materials,  and  regulations  were  enacted 
prescribing  the  exact  character  and  amount  of  materials 
to  be  used. 

8  6.  The  Times  of  Worship  were  an  important  item,  for  i  Sam.g:i2,  13 

22-24; 
these  were  the  feast  occasions;  these  were  often  merely  iSam.i:3,4- 

the  social  meals  of  a  clan  ;  or,  in  other  cases,  were  con- 
nected with  a  pilgrimage.  They  had  their  origin  in  connec- 
tion with  the  times  of  the  moon  and  the  seasons,  arising, 
as  they  did,  out  of  the  pastoral  or  agricultural  life.  Men 
whose  hearts  have  the  same  tendencies  are  drawn 
•together,  and  in  the  act  of  association  there  is  worship  ; 
lor  the  more  closely  they  are  united,  the  nearer  they  may 
come  to  God.  To  know  more  of  God  is  itself  to  worship 
tiim,  and  the  highest  form  of  worship  is,  perhaps,  that 
which  involves  communion  with  others  as  well  as  with 
God. 

(1)  There  were  three  great  feasts,  the  first  coming  in  Exod.  23  :  14-17. 
the  springtime,   the   second  in  the  early  summer,   the 

third  in  the  autumn.  These  correspond  roughly  to 
the  more  modern  Kaster,  Pentecost,  and  Thanksgiving 
seasons. 

(2)  There  were  also   special   feasts  and  feast  days,  HOS.  2:11. 
which  in   early  tinis  seem  to   have   been  of  a  joyous 
character. 

(3)  There   were   days,  like  the   Day  of   Atonement,  Lev.  16:29-34. 
which  were  days  of  iffliction  rather  than  of  joy. 


6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

zech.  7:3-5;  (4)  There  were  also  fast  days,  as  well  as  feast  days. 

Esther  9: 28-31.  y*7 

celebrating  some  great  calamity. 

§  7.  Other  Acts  of  Worship. —  In  connection  with  and 
forming  a  part  of  worship   were   several  specific   acts, 
such  as  — 
Gen. 24:isff.;  (i)  Prayer;  this  was  always  implied    in    the   act  of 

iSam.i:io;8:6; 

i  Kings  8:23-53;    sacrifice,    but   very   frequently  it  was    independent    of 

Isa.  38: 3,  3; 

»eh.  i:4-«;  3:4-  sacrifice.  If  the  deity  is  a  person,  and  if  he  has  real  inter- 
est in  his  clan  or  tribe  or  people,  he  will  surely  listen  to 
them,  when  in  distress  their  heart  appeals  for  succor  ; 
and  also  when  in  joy  they  express  appreciation  of  some 
great  favor  which  he  has  shown  them.  Abraham's  prayer 
for  the  city  in  which  his  relatives  dwelt  is  characteristic 
of  the  earliest  and  the  latest  periods  of  civilization,  and 
is  thoroughly  typical  of  humanity. 

judg.  11:30-39;  (2)   The  vow  was  a  kind  of  prayer,  very  common  in 

i  Sam.  1:11;  ,     ., 

£idg.  13:3-7;        ancient  times,  and,  when  once  made,  regarded  as  invio- 
umb.  6: 1-I2.        ,  ,  ,  ,       ,  .        ,         ., 

lable.     It  sometimes  involved  a  simple  gift;    at  other 

times,  perhaps,  as  in  the  case  of  Jephthah,  the  sacrifice 
of  a  human  life  ;  and  again,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Nazirite, 
it  signified  setting  apart  to  the  service  of  God. 
i  Kings  6: 19;  (3)   The  oracle  and  dream,  as  methods  of  ascertaining 

Exod.  28:30: 

Gen.  20: 3;  38: 10,  the  divine  will,  must  be  counted  as  acts  of  worship.  In 
these  methods,  as  in  all  the  others,  the  Israelites  did  not 
differ  from  the  other  ancient  nations  in  the  midst  of 
whom  they  dwelt. 

153.47:9;  (4)  Sorcery  was  employed  in  many  forms,  for  there 

Mai.  3 : 5';  were  diviners,  augurs,  enchanters,  charmers,  consulters 

Dan.  3:3;  , 

Deut.  18:9-13.       with  familiar  spirits,  wizards,  and  necromancers ;  but  acts 

of  this  kind  were  always  forbidden. 

Gen.  4:31;  (5)  Music  and.  dancing  were  accompaniments  of  wor- 

isa.03o5:'393,I32;  ship.  If  worship  is  the  expression  of  the  heart  in  com- 
Nu'mV  10:2;  munion  with  God,  it  must  include  melody  and  rhythm, 
josh'.  6:4«  ;  sound  and  movement.  Music  has  always  formed  a  part 
2Sam37i63:'i43'2'  of  worship,  and  in  many  cases  dancing  has  accompanied, 

Exod.  15:  20;  ,  . 

Pss.i49:3;i5o:4.   not  only  festival,  but  worship. 

§  8.  Songs  and  Hymns  of  Worship. — These  furnish  us, 
perhaps,  the  highest  product  of  the  priest-work;  for, 
although  much  of  the  Psalter  is  prophetic  in  its  character, 
by  far  the  greater  part  is  the  high  and  holy  expression 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  7 

of  the  soul  of  individual  or  nation  in  its  deepest  com- 
munion with  God ;  and  nowhere  in  all  literature  may 
religious  songs  of  so  tender  and  deep  a  character  be 
found  as  in  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  the  hymn-book  of  the 
Hebrew  temple,  the  work  of  the  Hebrew  priest.  These 
have  been  variously  and  quite  minutely  classified;  but 
here  reference  may  be  limited  to  — 

(1)  Songs   of   thanksgiving,    in   which   gratitude   is  Pss.  103;  134;  136. 
expressed  for  great  favors  received  from  Jehovah  and  his 

praises  are  gladly  sung. 

(2)  Songs  of  petition  and  prayer,  in  which  the  poet  PSS.  80;  88;  xoa. 
pleads  for   the   intervention    of   Jehovah    in    behalf   of 

himself  or  of  Israel,  bringing  deliverance  from  difficulty 
and  danger,  or  restoration  to  divine  favor. 

(3)  Songs  of  penitential  confession,  in  which  the  sin-   Pss.  51;  116;  130. 
ner  pours  out  his  confession  of  sin  and  guilt. 

§  9.  Laws  Regulating  Worship  and  Life  were,  likewise, 
largely  formulated,  promulgated,  and  executed  by  the 
priests.  Legislation,  therefore,  in  its  stricter  sense,  was 
the  function  of  the  priests,  rather  than  of  the  prophets  or 
sages.  The  priest's  work  included  something  more  than 
the  various  elements  which  enter  into  or  are  connected 
with  what  we  would  today  call  worship.  In  those  days 
the  religious  life  and  the  secular  life  were  the  same. 
Religion  and  politics  were  the  same.  This  means  that 
it  was  impossible  to  draw  a  line  between  religious  life 
and  ordinary  life.  The  priest's  work  dealt  with  both.  It  Deut.  22:  i-ia; 

•  Exod.  21:1-35; 

had  to  do,  consequently,  with  such  matters  as  the  treat-      22:1-37. 

ment  of  one's  neighbor's  cattle,  the  treatment  of  birds, 

the  building  of  a  house.     There  were  laws,  for  example,  Lev.  19:9-37; 

,  ,  ,        Exod.  23 : 1-9. 

concerning  the  harvest,  the  oppression  of  the  poor,  the 
treatment  of  defectives,  tale-bearing,  etc.,  etc.  These 
are  a  few  examples  only,  taken  from  the  great  law- 
books,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy.  It  is  to  be 
understood,  of  course,  that  these  laws,  as  they  were  from 
time  to  time  formulated,  included  the  teachings  of  the 
prophets  and  sages,  as  they  appeared  and  did  their  work 
and  passed  away.  But  in  addition  to  these  laws  of  soci- 
ological character  there  were  the  laws  which  regulated 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Exod.  33: 18, 19; 
Deut.  30:15-30; 
Lev.,  chap.  31. 


aChron.s:3— 7:3; 
cf,  i  Kings, 
chap.  8. 


i  Chron. ,  chaps. 
15,16; 


29-32; 
cf.  2  Kings ,  chaps 
18-20. 


a  Chron.  35: 1-19 
<•/.  3  Kings 
33:31-33. 


the  details  of  worship  in  all  respects,  e.  g.,  the  priest,  his 
dress,  his  maintenance,  the  offerings,  their  material,  etc., 
etc.  These  more  strictly  come  into  consideration  in 
connection  with  topics  already  discussed  (cf.  §§3,  7). 

§  10.  The  History  of  Worship  was  naturally  written  or 
compiled  by  priests,  and  thus  constitutes  a  part  of  the 
priest-work  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  history  of  Israel, 
as  we  find  it  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  had  already 
been  written  (about  550  B.  C.).  This  history  was  prepared 
cf. s Sam. 6:13-19.  from  a  wholly  prophetic  point  of  view.  It  was  intended 
2  Chron.,  chaps.  to  teach  prophetic  lessons,  especially  those  connected 
with  the  idea  of  the  enormity  of  sin  and  its  disastrous 
consequences.  At  a  later  date  (about  300  B.  C.)  the 
priests  undertook  to  traverse  the  field  of  sacred  history, 
and  in  so  doing  used,  to  some  extent,  the  same  original 
sources.  This  priestly  history  is  found  in  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  In  these  books  the 
thought  always  uppermost  is  that  of  the  history  of  worship. 
Its  purpose  was  to  assist  in  establishing  regular  service 
in  the  second  temple,  and  to  kindle  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people  a  national  life  and  spirit,  and  respect  for  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  national  religion.  The  differences  in  matter, 
tone,  and  spirit  between  the  prophetic  and  the  priestly 
histories  is  easily  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  treatment 
which  each  gives  to  the  same  subject,  e.  g.: 

(1)  The  dedication  of  the  temple  (cf.  2  Chron.  5:2 — 
7  : 10). 

(2)  The  transfer  of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem. 

(3)  The  accession  of  Solomon. 

(4)  The  account  of  the  plague  in  David's  reign. 

(5)  The  sin  of  David  with  Bathsheba,  which  is  not 
mentioned  in  Chronicles. 

(6)  The  organization  of  the  priests  and  Levites  and 
temple  officials,  which  is  treated  in  full  in  Chronicles, 
and  not  mentioned  in  Samuel  and  Kings. 

It  is  proposed,  after  this  general  view  of  the  work  of  the  priests  as  a 
whole,  to  undertake  to  do  five  things  in  the  following  series  of  studies  : 

(i)  To  trace  the  history  of  worship  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  Old  Testament  times,  through  the  early,  the  middle,  and  the 
late  periods. 


i  Kings,  chap.  8. 


i  Chron.,  chaps. 

28,  29; 
cf.  i  Kings  i :  33- 

40 


i  Chron. ,  chap. 2 
cha 
24- 


cf.  2  Sam. ,  chap 

24- 
2  Sam.  11:3-37. 


i  Chron.,  chaps. 
33-36. 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  Q 

(2)  To  classify  and  note  the  elements  of  worship  in  the  Hebrew 
Psalter,  the  Christian's  Book  of  Psalms. 

(3)  To  analyze  and  present  the  essential  points  of  interest  in  the 
histories  which  the  priests  themselves  prepared,  and  which  are  found 
in  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah. 

(4)  To  determine  the  great  ideas  which  entered  into  and  controlled 
the  priest-work. 

(5)  To  explain  as  far  as  it  may  be  possible  (a)  the  purpose  and 
spirit  of  \h\spriest-elementas  it  appears  in  its  various  forms   in  Israel- 
itish  history  and  literature ;   (b}  the  permanent,  as  distinguished  from 
the  transitory,  elements  which  it  contained ;  (c)  the  contribution  which 
it  made  to  Christianity,  or,  in   other  words,  its  relationship  to  Chris- 
tianity. 


PAET  SECOKD 


THE    HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP 

II.    HISTORY  OF  WORSHIP  IN  THE  EARLIER  OLD  TESTAMENT  PERIOD. 

III.  HISTORY  OF  WORSHIP  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OLD  TESTAMENT  PERIOD. 

IV.  HISTORY  OF  WORSHIP  IN  THE  LATER  OLD  TESTAMENT  PERIOD. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP    IN    THE    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD. 

§11.  Worship  Alone  Constituted  Religion  in  the  earliest  times.  It 
was  later  that  greater  and  greater  emphasis  came  to  be  placed  on  con- 
duct and  belief  (see  §  i).  A  ceremony  or  religious  rite  was  associated 
(in  the  various  ancient  religions)  with  some  fact,  or  supposed  fact,  or 
legend,  or  myth.  But  it  was  the  rite  which  constituted  the  religious 
element,  and  not  any  belief  concerning  the  origin  of  the  rite.  "It 
made  no  difference  what  the  worshiper  believed  concerning  the  cere- 
mony, if  only  he  performed  it  regularly  and  accurately."  "  What  was 
obligatory  or  meritorious  was  the  exact  performance  of  sacred  acts 
prescribed  by  religious  traditions."  It  was  the  prophets  and  sages 
who  introduced  at  the  same  time  higher  conceptions-  of  God  and 
higher  conceptions  of  life.  »  • 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (ad  ed.),  pp.  17-22;  MENZIES,  His- 
tory of  Religion,  pp.  6-13,  64  f.;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel, 
PP-  52-5- 

§  12.  A  Semitic  Period  in  the  Development  of  Worship  preceded  the 
earliest  Hebrew  worship,  and  formed  the  basis  of  it.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  Semitic  family  (i)  gave  to  the  world  the  two 
earliest  civilizations  of  which  we  have  knowledge,  the  Egyptian  and 
the  old  Babylonian,  and  controlled  the  world's  political  history  for 
forty  or  fifty  centuries ;  (2)  has  been  mediary,  not  only  in  the  field  of 
commerce  and  between  man  and  man,  but  also,  in  that  higher  field  of 
religion,  between  God  and  man,  in  that  they  have-  proved  to  be  the 
religious  teachers  of  the  world,  since  through  them  have  come  the 
world's  three  highest  faiths — -Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Moham- 
medanism. 

See  G.  A.  SMITH,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  28  ff.;  W.  R. 
SMITH,  op.  cit.,  pp.  28-83;  C.  G.  MONTEFIORE,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp.  22-30;  J.  F.  McCURDY,  History,  Prophecy 
and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  I,  pp.  5-1 1 ;  FRITZ  HOMMEL,  The  Civilization  of  the  East, 
pp.  25-7. 

§  1 3.  The  Most  Ancient  Form  of  Semitic  Religion,  the  parent  of  all 
others,  was  that  found  in  the  old  mother-home  of  Arabia.  It  was  a 

13 


14  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

religion  well  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  people,  who,  at  that  time, 
were  still  in  clans.  The  Hebrews,  together  with  the  Moabites,  Ammon- 
ites, and  Edomites,  had  "  their  root  in  a  state  of  society  when  there 
was  no  large  and  orderly  community,  but  only  a  multitude  of  small 
and  restless  tribes;  when  there  was  no  written  law,  but  only  custom; 
and  when  there  was  no  central  authority  to  execute  justice,  but  it 
was  left  to  a  man's  fellow-clansmen  to  avenge  his  murder."  In  this 
time  — 

(1)  There  was  a  god  for  each  clan,  and  this  god  was  thought  to  be  a 
very  remote  ancestor.    To  leave  the  clan  meant  to  leave  the  god.    This 
clan-god  was  closely  connected  with  every  undertaking  of  the  clan, 
whether   of   peace  or  war;   and  his  name  everywhere  was  "Lord," 
"King,"  "Mighty  One." 

See  MENZIES,  History  of  Religion,  pp.  74-6  ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the 
Semites  (2d  ed.),  pp.  35-9  ;  D'ALVIELLA,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Conception  of  God 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1891),  pp.  204-7. 

(2)  The   worship   of  the  clan-god  was   important,  because   every 
detail  of  life  was  dependent  on  his   favor.     His  favor  or  anger  was 
shown  at  certain  spots,  which  thenceforward  became  sacred  places,  and 
here  those  who  inquired  of  him  would  find  him.     The  god  could  not, 
of  course,  be  worshiped  anywhere  outside  of  the  land  which  belonged  to 
him  ;  and  if  one  left  that  land  and  entered  another,  he  must  at  once 
transfer  his  worship  to  the  god  of  the  new  land. 

See  MENZIES,  op.  fit.,  pp.  160  £.;  BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp. 
S3-S. 

(3)  The  present  life  played  a  larger  part  than  the  future  life  ;  for, 
while  the  early  Semites  believed   in  the  continued  existence  of  the 
departed,  they  regarded  them  as  destitute  of  energy,  as  "  shades  laid 
in  the  ground."     "After  death,  it  was  held,  even  religion  came  to  an 
end.     A  man  must  enjoy  the  society  of  his  god  in  this  life;    after 
death  he  could  take  part  in  no  sacrifice,  and  could  render  to  God  no 
thanks  or  service." 

See  MENZIES,  op.  cit.,  p.  161 ;  C.  G.  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  454-7;  R.  H. 
CHARLES,  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  pp.  51-4. 

(4)  This  explains,  in  some    measure,  the  rites  of  worship   which 
existed  in  these  primitive  times,  viz.: 

(a)  The  sacrifice;  the  man  sought  a  sacred  place  (/.  e.,  a  place 
where  the  god  was  likely  to  be  found),  killed  an  animal,  put  the  blood 
of  the  animal  on  a  stone ;  the  god  touched  the  blood,  the  man  touched 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  15 

it,  and  this  act  was  a  renewal  of  the  declaration  that  the  man  and  the 
god  were  of  the  same  blood,  and  that  the  covenant  between  them  was 
renewed. 

See  MENZIES,  op.  cit.,  pp.  65-8,  162;  SCHULTZ,  "The  Significance  of  Sacri- 
fice in  the  Old  Testament,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  257-61 ; 
G.  S.  GOODSPEED,  "The  Atonement  of  Communion,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XVII, 
pp.  96-106. 

(V)  The  feast  or  banquet;  at  this  the  god  was  supposed  to  sit  with 
his  people  and  to  receive  his  share  of  the  animal  just  slain.  In  late 
times,  when  the  god  was  thought  to  live  above,  his  share  was  burned 
and  he  received  the  savor  or  smell  of  the  sacrifice.  The  feast  included 
dancing,  and  even  gross  kinds  of  indulgence.  All  was  joyful.  Happi- 
ness, reaching  even  to  "orgiastic  ecstasy,"  was  universal. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  op.  cit.,  pp.  253-8  ;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  i88f. 

§14.  Three  Great  Periods  are  seen  in  the  develop-  Josh. 24:2,3. 
ment  of  this  primitive  Semitic  worship,  as  it  appears  in 
the  Old  Testament  history.  Two  opinions  exist  as  to 
whether  the  writing  of  the  Pentateuch  (or  five  books  of 
the  law)  was  practically  finished  in  the  days  of  Moses,  or 
in  the  days  of  Ezra. 

See  GREEN,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch,  pp.  31-58; 
BRIGGS,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch,  1897,  PP-  156-62; 
DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.), 
pp.  82-98,  123-6,  135-59;  CARPENTER  AND  HARFORD-BATTERSBY, 
The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  17-23. 

This  question  does  not  concern  us  here ;  for  all  stu- 
dents agree  that,  whatever  may  have  been  the  date  of 
writing,  the  date  of  adoption  of  the  laws  and  ceremonies 
by  the  masses  of  the  people  is  definitely  announced  in 
Scripture,  viz.: 

(1)  The  Levitical  law  in  all  its  fulness  and  the  Leviti-  Heh.,  chap.  8. 
cal  ritual  of  worship  were  not  adopted  until  the  times  of 

Ezra  (440  B.  C.). 

(2)  The  Deuteronomic  law,  as  laid  down  in  Deuter-   aKingsaa:8— 

23: 3. 
onomy,  did  not  come  into  force  until  Josiah's  time  (621 

B.  C.).     It  is  clear  that  there  was 

(3)  An  earlier  legal  code  and  an  earlier  form  of  wor-  Exod.  20 : 23- 
ship  which  served  to  connect  the  old  Semitic  worship 

with    the    Deuteronomic.      This   earliest   of    the   three 


i6 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Gen.  47:1-10. 


Judg.  1:1-4; 
a:  11-19. 


Eos.  11:1-4; 
12: 10,  ii ; 
Amos  2:10-13; 
Isa.  a :  6-9. 


Josh.  24:3-7. 


Gen.  12:6-8; 
13:4,  18; 
26 :  24 1 . ; 
32:  22-32; 
35  =  i4f. 


Gen.  31:46. 


Gen.  31 : 19,  34  f. 


Gen.  22 : 13 ;  27 : 25 ; 

38:18; 
Bzod.  24 : 4-8. 


periods  is  first  to  be  considered  and  presents  itself  in 
three  different  stages,  viz.: 

(a)  The  primitive  Hebrew  stage  —  that  which  existed 
during  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  and  while  Israel  was 
still  a  nomadic  people,  wandering  from  place  to  place. 

(ft)  The  Canaanitish  stage — that  in  which  the  primi- 
tive form  came  into  contact  with  the  corrupt  and  licen- 
tious practices  of  the  Canaanitish  religion;  it  was  at  this 
time  that  Israel  was  settling  down  to  an  agricultural  life. 

(c)  The  prophetic  stage — that  in  which  the  prophets 
made  heroic  struggle  against  the  corruption  and  idola- 
try of  Israel,  by  pointing  out  a  truer  conception  of  God, 
the  adoption  of  which  affected  both  the  conduct  and  the 
worship  of  the  nation. 

§  15.  In  the  Primitive  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  the 
Worship  was,  of  course,  only  slightly  different  from  that 
common  Semitic  worship  described  above.  The  people 
were  still  wandering  about.  Leaders  had  been  raised  up 
by  God  whose  work  would  in  time  lead  the  people 
higher  and  higher  toward  a  proper  conception  of 
God  and  of  his  worship.  But,  as  the  Old  Testament 
so  clearly  shows,  the  people  hung  back;  refused  to 
follow  the  divinely  appointed  leaders  ;  and  only  after 
fifteen  hundred  years  of  instruction  finally  acknowledged 
Jehovah  to  be  the  only  God.  The  facts  concerning 
worship  are  these : 

(1)  The  place  selected  for  worship  by  the  patriarchs 
was  the  place  in  which  they  pitched  their  tent ;  e.  g., 
Abraham  worshiped  at  Shechem,  and  near  Bethel ;  Jacob 
at    Beersheba,    and    at    Peniel,    and    at   Bethel.     Trees, 
springs,  and  stones  are  also  mentioned. 

The  altar  must  have  been  something  very  simple, 
consisting  only  of  stones  gathered  together,  or  of  earth 
thrown  up. 

Teraphim,  or  household  gods,  were  found  in  Jacob's 
family.  There  seems  not  to  have  been  an  ark  or  chest 
in  use. 

(2)  The  priest  was  the  leader,  whoever  he  may  have 
been,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  or  Moses.     There  was  no 
class  of  priests. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  \"J 

(3)  The  sacrifice  was  a  family  meal,  or  a  clan  meal,  /.  e.,   Gen.  26:28-30; 
a  banquet.     It  consisted  of  flesh,  specially  prepared;  its   Gen!i8:i-s. 
savor  was  smelled  by  Jehovah  ;  it  was  eaten  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  deity. 

(4)  The  times  were  irregular  :  sacrifice  was  offered  at   cf.  references 

given  above. 
any  time.     There  is  no   reference  to  the  observance  of 

dates  marked  by  the  moon,  or  of  the  sabbath. 

(5)  Other  acts  of  worship  are  seen  in  — 

(a)  The  prayer  of  Abraham   for  the  deliverance  of  Gen.  18:23-33; 

24  :  12  ff . ;  32  :g- 

Lot,  of  Abraham's  servant  for  guidance  in  the  pursuit  of      12. 
his  mission,  and  of  Jacob  for  deliverance  from  Esau. 

(b~)  The  vow  of  Abraham  paid  to  Melchizedek ;  and   Gen.  14:18-24; 

28: 20-22. 
that  of  Jacob  made  on  his  journey  to  Laban,  the  Syrian. 

(f)  The  dreams  of  the   patriarchs,  which  as  methods   Gen.  15:12-21; 

28 : 10-18 ;  35 : 9- 

of  receiving  communications  from  the  deity  are  to  be      13:37:5-10. 
classed  with  acts  of  worship. 

(</)  The  cup  of  divination  of  Joseph,  and  \hzteraphim  Gen.  44:1-5. 
(see  p.  i 6). 

(6)  Songs  and  hymns,  laws,  and  history -wrif ing  had   Gen.  49:1-26; 

Ezod.  15: 1-18; 
not  yet  taken  formal  shape  ;  or,  at  all  events,  they  have  Exod.  20:1-17. 

not  come  down  to  us  in  the  form  which  existed  in  these 
early  days.  The  present  literary  form  of  pieces  like 
the  "Blessing  of  Jacob,"  the  "  Song  of  Moses  at  the  Red 
Sea,"  and  the  "  Decalogue"  comes  from  a  time  later 
than  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 

§  1 6.  In  the  Canaanitish  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  the  Judg.  2:1-5. 
worship  was  greatly  changed.  This  was  due  partly  to  the 
change  from  nomadic  to  agricultural  life,  and  partly  to 
contact  with  Canaanitish  forms  of  worship,  which  were 
peculiarly  rich  and  fascinating.  The  name  of  the 
Canaanitish  divinity,  Baal,  meant  "lord."  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  Israelite  would  feel  that  he  was  not  doing 
justice  to  his  God,  if  he  did  not  pay  him  every  possible 
honor,  or  at  least  the  honors  paid  their  gods  by  his 
neighbors,  the  Canaanites.  Consequently  much  that 
was  Canaanitish  was  now  appropriated. 

(i)  Places  and  representatives;  here  arise  — 

(a)  The  high  places,  all  over  the  land,  which  soon  Judg.  6:25-32; 

i  Sam.  i :  3. 
became  centers  of  corruption  and  licentiousness. 


1 8  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

judg.  3:7;  6:»5,          (/*)  The  pillars  and  the  tree  trunks,  or  Asherim,  which 

30;  9:6;  10 : 6. 

were  to  be  found  at  the  high  places  and  were  taken  over  into 

the  Jehovah-worship  which  was  carried  on  at  these  places. 

judg.  ao:a7f.;  (f)  The  ark  or  chest,  which  was  thought  to  represent 

i  Sam.  4:sff. 

the  deity,  and  which  the  people  carried  with  them  when 
they  went  to  battle,  as  in  Eli's  days. 
Cf.  Bxod.  33;  8,  (</)  The  image  of  the  serpent,  or  of  the  bull,  which  was 

10—34  ' 

Numb.  ai:8f.;      adopted,  now  and  again,  as  the  proper  representation  of 

deity, 
i  Sam.  14:41;  (f)  The  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  were  carried  in  a 

pocket  of  the  priestly  ephod,  were  in  use  as  a  means  of 

discovering  the  divine  will  with  reference  to  any  course 

of  action. 

judg.  17:7;  (2)  The  priest  was  sometimes  a  professional,  bearing 

20;  '   the  name  Levite,  and  cultivated  a  certain  professional 

Judg. 6: 19;  13:19;  * 

17=5;  6:25-37;  tone   by   which  he  was   recognized    as   a   Levite.     He 

11:31,  39 

seems  to  have  been  more  acceptable  than  the  patriarch 
or  oldest  son,  who  in  the  past  had  performed  priestly  duties. 
The  priest  went  about  wherever  he  could  find  employ- 
ment. But  the  old  family  priesthood  still  continued,  and 
sacrifice  was  not  restricted  to  any  class  of  priests, 
judg. 6: 19-31, ae-  (^)  Sacrifice  was  the  same  as  before,  an  act  of  com- 

a8;  13:16-33; 

iSam.  1:3-5,  9,   munion  with  the  deity.     The  burnt-offering  seems  to 

have  occupied  a  more  prominent  place, 
i  Sam.  00:5,  6,          (4)  Times  and  seasons.  —  Now  there  arose   feasts  of 

18,  34,  37,  ag; 

judg. 9:37:31:19;   the  moon:  the  sabbath  was  also  observed,  probably  as  a 
i  Sam.  1:3,  13. 

time  of  rejoicing;  there  were  also  the  Feasts  of  Harvest 
and  Vintage,  because  Israel  had  now  become  an  agricul- 
tural people.  These  feasts  furnished  opportunity  for 
drunkenness  and  licentiousness. 

(5)  Other  acts. — We  read  of  the  — 

Judg.  13:8; 

15:18;  iSam.  (a)  Prayers  of  Manoah,  Samson,  and  Hannah. 

i :  10,  13-17. 

judg.  11:30,  31,          (K}    Vows  of  Jephthah  and  of  Hannah,  and  of  the 
35_4o,    ..i,  7,   Bribes  of  israei  against  Benjamin,  because  of  its  outrage 

i  Sam.  i:  n.  .,       ,        ...  ,  . 

upon  the  Levite  s  concubine. 
Jndg.  13:3-5.  (f)    Visions  of  Samson's  parents,  and  of  the   child 

o-ai ; 

iSam. 3:1-18.       Samuel,  during  his  sojourn  in  the  temple  at  Shiloh. 
i  Sam.  38:7-14.  (d}  Sorcery  and  witchcraft  in  connection  with  Saul's 

attempt  to  learn  the  outcome  of  his  contest  with  the 
k  Philistines. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  1 9 

(e)  Music  and  dancing  in  connection  with  the  yearly  Judg.  21:19-21; 

J     i  Sam.  10:5; 
feasts  at  Shiloh,  with  the  sons  of  the  prophets,  and,  a  little      16:16-22;  18:6, 

7,  10 ;  19:9. 

later,  on  the  part  of  David.     This  was  characteristic  of 
the  joyous  spirit  that  permeated  the  religion  of  these  times. 

(6)  Songs  and  hymns  are  seen  in  the  exodus  song,   Exod.  15:1-21; 

Judg.,  chap.  5; 
with  its  refrain;  the  song  of  Deborah;  and  the  song  of  i  Sam.  2:1-10. 

Hannah. 

(7)  Laws  were    unquestionably  taking  form,  under 
divine  guidance,  as  the  codification  of  custom.     To  what 
extent  this  was  true  is  a  matter  of  dispute  between  (a) 
those  who  believe  that  the  Israelitish  legislation,  as  it 
has  come  down  to  us,  was  the  work  of  one  generation, 
and  of  one  man,  Moses,  and  (b}  those  who  believe  that 
this  legislation  is  the  product  of  seven  or  eight  centuries 
of  history,  although  based  upon  and  growing  out  of  the 
work  of  Moses  (cf.  references  to  literature  on  §14). 

§  17.  In  the  Prophetic  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  great  Amos,  chap.  5; 
influences  were  at  work  to  purge  and  purify  the  corrup-  isa.,'chap.  i4.' 
tion  which  had  entered  into  Israel's  worship,  and  to  teach 
a  conception  of  God  which,  in  itself,  would  lead  to  a 
higher  type  of  worship.      This  period  begins   roughly 
with  Samuel's  work  of  reformation  and  closes  just  before 
Josiah's  reformation  (621  B.C.).     The  great  names  of  aKings23:i-3. 
the  period  are  Samuel  and  David;  Elijah,  Elisha,  and 
Jonah ;  Amos  and  Hosea ;  Isaiah  and  Micah ;  and,  last 
of  all,  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah,  in  whose  days  the  refor- 
mation came.    The  details  of  this  reformation  belong  to 
the  second  or  middle  period;  but  the  preparation  for  a  Kings  33 14-14. 
the  great  changes  wrought  in  621  B.  C.  was  made  by  the 
prophets  of  the  preceding  centuries.     The  actual  prac- 
tices of  this  sub-period  were  full  of  superstition.     Let  us 
first  note  what  they  were  and  then  the  attitude  of  the 
prophets  toward  them. 

(i)  Places  of  worship. 

(a)   The  high  places  were  still  used  in  different  parts   i  Sam.  9:12-14, 
of  the  country,  as  is  seen  in  the  cases  of  Samuel,  whom   i  Kings '3:3,  4; 
Saul  first  met  at  the  sacrifice  on  the  high  place;  of  Solo-      u*:3ii;i4:*9; 
mon,  even  when  the  temple  had  been  built ;  of  Jeroboam  ;      15:4;  iV:Wi>» 
of  the  people  of  Judah  in  Rehoboam's  time  and  under      etc.32' 
later  kings  ;  and  of  Ahaz. 


2O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

i  Kings  14:  23;  (/$)    7%<r  pillars  and  Asherim  occupied  even  a  larger 

a  Kings  3:  a;  ,     , 

10:27:17:10;      place  than  before,  continuing  in  general  use  until  the 
HOB.  3:4;  io:i,a.        . 

reign  of  Josiah. 

a  Sam.,  chap.  6;         (c)   The   ark  was    transferred  with   great  solemnity 
chaps.  13,  15,16.   to  Jerusalem,  when  that  city  became  under  David  the 

nation's   capital.       This   supreme   act    of    worship    was 

accompanied  by  music  and  dancing. 
i  Kings,  chaps.  5,         (d)   The  temple  was  built  by  Solomon  ;  this  act  was 

6;  7:13-8:  66; 

cf.  i  chron.,       full  of  significance  for  the  future  history  of  worship. 

chap.  17;  33:  a- 

10;  As  the  king  had  his  palace,  so  Jehovah  was  to  have  his 

a  Chron.,  chaps. 

a-y.  temple.     The  ceremonial  would  now  be  better  organ- 

ized ;  a  basis  was  furnished  for  future  development  ; 
priests  and  singers  must  be  provided  for  regular  service. 
While  at  this  central  place  the  worship  would  henceforth 
be  conducted  in  a  purer  form,  but  at  the  same  time  with 
luxurious  magnificence,  the  old  routine  continued  in  all 
its  corruption  throughout  the  country  at  large. 

iSam.a8:i-a5.  (,)   The  spirit  of  Samuel,  called  Elohim  (/.  e.,  God), 

was  thought  to  have  been  called  forth  after  death  by  the 
witch  of  Endor,  in  order  to  speak  with  Saul  at  his  request. 

1  Kings  u:  35-33;         (/)  The  calves  set  up  at  Bethel  and  Gilgal  were  figures 
Hos.8:s,  e.  '    '  of  Jehovah,  intended  to  be  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  of 

the  north,  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  induced  to  go 
to  Jerusalem  for  worship. 
x  Kings  12:31-33;         (2)  The  priest  now  became  a  more  important  person- 

2  Sam.  6:13,  14; 

i  Kings  3;  15;        age;    the  professional  element    increased.     The    bond 

i  Kings  a:  26,37;    , 

a  Kings  H  :  4,  9,   between  those  engaged  in  the  same  work  was  strengthened 

12,  15,  17;  ia:a; 
a  Kings  16:13-16.   by  association.     The  Levite  was  gaming  ground,  as  over 

against  the  older  patriarchal  priest.  The  temple  required 
professional  service.  Samuel  was  a  priest,  and  in  his 
time  the  monarchy  took  shape,  which  meant  a  separation 
of  the  state  and  church.  With  the  royal  sanction  the 
priestly  order  was  greatly  strengthened  ;  but  the  king 
maintained  supremacy  and,  according  to  the  old  patriar- 
chal idea,  offered  sacrifice  as  head.  Since  the  priest  was 
judge,  he  formulated  decisions,  which  in  later  times  were 
to  become  law. 
i  Kings  s  :  6a-«5  ;  (?)  Sacrifice  was  offered,  sometimes  upon  a  great 

Eos.  a:n; 

33  :  i8f.  ;       scale  ;  the  old  idea  of  communion  with  God  continued  ; 


and  a  great  feature  of  the  sacrifice  was  the  element  of 

a  Kings  17:17. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  21 

joy.  The  sacrifice  might  not  be  offered  with  leavened 
bread.  The  first-fruits  of  the  ground  were  called  for. 
Sometimes  human  sacrifice  was  offered. 

(4)   Times  were  now  more  definitely  fixed. 

(a)  The  sabbath  was  an  established  institution,  what- 

ever  may  have  been  its  origin.  \l'l&7'  9> 

(b)  The  beginnings  of  a  sabbatical  year  were  made,  Exod.  23:10,  H. 
in  the  custom  of  allowing  the  land  to  lie  fallow  every 

seventh  year. 

(c)  Three  agricultural  feasts,  with    dates  dependent  Exod.  23:14-17; 

v  '  *  Exod.  34  =  M,  33; 

upon    the   climate,    were   observed,   viz.:  the    Feast   of  i  Kings  8:2; 

13  :  32  ; 
Unleavened  Bread  (Easter  time),  in  celebration  of  the  HOS.  2:11. 

departure  from  Egypt  ;  the  Feast  of  Harvest,  when  the 
first-fruits  were  gathered  ;  and  the  Feast  of  Ingathering, 
in  the  autumn. 
•   (5)   Other  acts. 

(a)  Prayers  continued  to  be  offered,  as  in  the  case  of  »  Sam.  7:5,  8,  9; 

8:6;  12:23; 

Samuel  at  Mizpah,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  people's  2  Sam.  7:18-28; 

is  :  16  ; 

demand  for  a  king:  of  David,  after  Nathan  had  made  »  Kings  8  :  22-54  ; 

0  i  Kings  17:  20-22; 

known  to  him  Jehovah's  purpose  to  establish  his  house      18:36,37; 

2  Kings  19:  15-19. 
in  Israel,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Bathsheba's 

child  ;  of  Solomon,  at  the  time  of  the  dedication  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  of  Elijah,  for  the  restoration  of  the 
widow's  son  to  life,  and  on  Mount  Carmel;  and  of  Heze- 
kiah,  for  deliverance  from  Sennacherib. 

(b)  Vows  were  still  made,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  aSam.  15:7,8; 

Amos  2:12. 

of  Absalom,  and  of  the  Nazirites. 

(c)  Oracles  and  dreams  are  seen  in  David's  inquiry  of  aSam.  2:1;  5:33, 
Jehovah  after  the  death  of  Saul,  and  before  the  battle  aSam.  7:4; 


with  the  Philistines  in  the  valley  of  Rephaim  ;  in  Jehovah's      32:5-28; 

'  2  Kings  16:15; 

message  to  David  through  Nathan  ;  in  Solomon's  dream   Amos  7:1-9; 

8  ;  I  IT,  ', 

at  Gibeon  ;  in  Ahab's  consultation  of  the  prophets  before  Isa-,  chaP-  6- 
advancing  upon  Ramoth-Gilead;  and  in  the  use  made 
of   the   brazen    altar   by    King   Ahaz.    The   visions   of 
Amos  and  Isaiah  may  also  be  mentioned  in   this  con- 
nection. 

(d)  Sorcery  was  practiced,  for  it  was  distinctly  opposed  ISa?:a8.:3^°;. 
by  Saul  and  Samuel  (although  Samuel  himself  is  said  to  Mic.  5:". 
have  been  called  from  the  grave  by  a  witch),  and  by  later 
prophets. 


22 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN -THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


i  Sam.  10:5; 
Amos  5:33;  6:5; 
3  Sam.  6:5,  14, 

16; 

Isa.  30:29; 
i  Kings  i :  40. 


i  Sam.  18:7; 
3  Sam.  1:19-37; 
3  Sam.  3:33!. ; 

18:33; 
a  Sam.,  chap,  aa 

=Ps.  18. 


Amos  7:9; 
Eos.  10:8; 
Mic.  1:5; 
i  Kings  14:33,33. 


Hos.  4:6-9; 

6:9; 

Mic.  3:11; 
Zeph.  3:4. 


,  5:33; 
Hos.  4:13,  14; 
12:11;  13:3; 


Amos  5:31; 

6 .46 ; 
Hos.  a :  ii ; 
Isa.  i :  13,  14. 


Isa.  1:15; 
Mic.  3:4. 


Isa.  8:19;  19:3. 


(f)  Music  and  dancing  were  greatly  developed  in  con- 
nection with  the  feasts  and  the  worship  on  the  high  places, 
and  the  regular  services  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  which 
contributed  much  to  the  enrichment  of  the  worship  of 
Jehovah. 

(6)  Songs  were  sung,  sometimes  of  a  secular  character, 
as  when  the  women  of  Israel  praised  the  warlike  deeds  of 
Saul  and  David,  and  when  David  lamented  the  death  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  or  that  of  Abner,  or  of  Absalom  ;  at 
other  times  of  a  religious  character,  as  perhaps  when  David 
sang  upon  the  occasion  of  his  deliverance  from  Saul  (but 
see  §19). 

§  1 8.  The  Prophets'  Attitude  toward  the  actual  prac- 
tice of  the  people,  as  it  was  conducted  by  the  priests, 
was  that  of  undisguised  opposition.  It  is  asserted  many 
times  that  — 

(1)  The  high  places  were  an   occasion  of  sin,  and 
aroused  Jehovah's  anger,  and  must  therefore  be  destroyed. 
They  were  one  of  the  most  effective  channels  of  corrup- 
tion to  the  worshipers  of  Jehovah. 

(2)  The  priests  were  altogether  corrupt  and  self-seek- 
ing; they  were  the  leaders  in  sin,  going  to  the  farthest 
extremes  of  debauchery  and  licentiousness,  and  carry- 
ing the  people  down  to  destruction  along  with  them- 
selves. 

(3)  Sacrifice  was  displeasing  to  Jehovah,  since  the 
people  were  multiplying  offerings  with  the  thought  that 
this  was  all  that  was  necessary  to  secure  Jehovah's  bless- 
ing; whereas  justice  and  mercy  were  alone  pleasing  to 
him. 

(4)  Feast  days  and  seasons  had  become  occasions  of 
orgiastic  revelry  and  must  be  brought  to  an  end.    These 
were  in  large  measure  borrowed  from  the  Baal-worship, 
and  were  not  yet  wholly  purified. 

(5)  Prayer  was  in  vain,  no  matter  how  fervent  and 
frequent,  since  it  came  from  people  whose  hearts  were 
evil,  and  their  hands  red  with  blood. 

(6)  Sorcery   and   witchcraft   were    condemned    and 
regarded  as  Unworthy  of  a  people  whose  worship  should 
be  given  to  Jehovah. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  23 

§  19.  The  Songs  and  Hymns  of  the  Early  Period  furnish  one  of  the 
most  difficult  questions  within  the  entire  realm  of  biblical  study. 
Modern  scholars,  for  the  most  part,  teach  (i)  that  the  law  is  the  prod- 
uct of  many  centuries  of  history  conducted  by  God  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  produce  that  law,  the  basis  being  found  in  the  work  of  Moses; 
and  (2)  that  to  ascribe  the  whole  to  Moses  permits  no  opportunity  for 
gradual  unfolding  of  the  divine  plan.  So  they  teach  (i)  that  most  of 
the  seventy-three  psalms  ascribed  by  tradition  to  David  belong  to  a 
later  age,  when  ideas  of  God  were  higher  and  purer  than  in  David's 
times,  and  when  the  worship  of  God  by  leaders  and  people  had  become 
pure  and  spiritual;  and  (2)  that  to  ascribe  these  psalms,  or  most  of 
them,  to  David  is  to  turn  the  history  of  Israel's  religious  thought  wrong 
side  foremost,  and  to  presuppose  in  David's  times  a  condition  of 
spiritual  life  on  the  part  of  David  and  the  people  which  could  not  have 
existed  until  centuries  later.  This  very  serious  and  important  ques- 
tion may  not  be  taken  up  here.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  the 
case  of  the  psalms,  as  in  the  case  of  the  law,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  date  of  origin,  the  people  never  reached  a  position  in  which  they 
could  use  these  psalms  (with  a  few  exceptions)  as  the  expression  of 
their  spiritual  communion  with  God,  until  (a)  the  prophets  had  preached 
long  centuries,  (<$)  the  priests  themselves  had  united  to  purge  and 
purify  a  corrupt  worship,  (c)  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  and 
the  land  laid  waste,  (dr)  the  inhabitants  were  carried  away  into  a  for- 
eign country,  and  (e)  the  nation  was  taught,  once  for  all,  what  had 
many  times  been  said,  but  never  actually  believed,  viz.,  that  there  was 
one  God,  and  one  only.  The  psalms  as  a  distinct  part  of  the  priests' 
work  will  receive  further  consideration  in  a  later  chapter. 

See  EWALD,  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  Vol.  I,  pp.  60-71;  PEROWNE,  Book  of 
Psalms  (second  edition),  Vol.1,  pp.  I-2I  ;  MURRAY,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Psalms, 
pp.  127-43;  CHEYNE,  The  Origin  and  Religious  Contents  of  the  Psalter,  pp.  190-225; 
KIRKPATRICK,  The  Psalms  (Cambridge  Bible],  Vol.  I,  pp.  xxxi-xxxviii ;  DRIVER, 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.),  pp.  373-80  ;  STANLEY, 
Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Lecture  XXV;  articles  on  "David"  in 
HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  CHEYNE'S  Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

The  views  of  some  of  the  most  important  commentators  concerning  the  number 
of  psalms  that  may  be  assigned  to  David  are  : 

(1)  Binney,  all,  or  nearly  all,  assigned  by  tradition. 

(2)  Olshausen,  Lengerke,  Cheyne,  Baethgen,  Duhm,  Wellhausen,  probably  none. 

(3)  Hitzig,  3-19,  except  5,  6,  14. 

(4)  Ewald,  3,  4,  7,  8,  II,  18,  19,  24,  29,  32,  101,  and  some  fragments. 

(5)  Delitzsch,  3-19,  22-24,  25,  28-30,  32,  34,  36-39,  41,  51,  52,  54,  56-63,  and  some 
others  doubtful. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Bzod.  20:1-17; 
Deut.  5:6-31; 
Bzod.  34:  10-28 
Bzod.  20:22— 
83:33. 


(6)  Perowne  grants  that  some  of  those  ascribed  to  David  cannot  have  been 
written  by  him,  but  thinks  that  he  "  personally  contributed  more  than  any  other  indi- 
vidual "  to  the  Psalter,  and  was  the  founder  of  a  school  of  sacred  poetry.  Similarly 
also  Kirkpatrick. 

§20.  The  Laws  of  the  Early  Period  may  be  classified 
under  three  heads:  the  decalogue,  in  two  editions;  the 
small  book  of  the  covenant ;  and  the  larger  book  of  the 
covenant.  Before  considering  these  separately,  a  few 
points  may  be  suggested  concerning  them  as  a  whole  : 

(a)  However  early  or  late  they  may  have  taken  on 
their  present  literary  form,  they  themselves  certainly  go 
back  to  the  period  of  Israel's  earliest  history. 

(b)  They  contain  much  material  which,  of  course,  had 
an  existence  long  before  the  days  of  Moses ;  e.  g.,  there 
had  been  prohibition  of  murder  and  of  stealing  centuries 
before  Moses. 

(c)  They  reflect,  in  general,  an   early  and,   indeed, 
primitive  stage  of  society;  but  this  stage  is  the  agricul- 
tural, and  therefore  later  than  the  nomadic. 

(</)  They  are  arranged  in  groups  of  ten,  or  of  five, 
(i)   The  decalogue. 

(a)  It  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  different  ways ; 
e.g.,  as  having  been  (i) spoken  by  God,  (2)  given  through 
angels,  (3)  written  by  the  finger  of  God. 

(b)  It  is  given  different  names  ;  e.  g.,  (i)  the  ten  words, 
(2)  the  words  of  the  covenant,  (3)  tables  of  the  cove- 
nant, (4)  covenant,  (5)  testimony,  (6)  two  tables  of  testi- 
mony. 

(c)  It  has  two  forms,  viz.,  that  in  Exod.  20  :  1-17,  and 
that  in  Deut.  5  :  6-21 ;  and  although  both  are  said  to  have 
been  engraved  on  stone,  there  are  many  differences  ;  e.  g., 
(i)  the  first  word  of  the  fourth  commandment;  (2)  the 
reason  assigned  for  observance  of  the  fourth  command- 
ment, viz.,  the  creation  and  rest  of  God  in  the  one,  the 
bringing  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt  in  the  other ;  (3)  the  two 
additional  clauses  in  the  one  form  of  the  fifth  command- 
ment ;  (4)  the  different  order  of  the  first  two  clauses  and 
the  addition  of  "  his  field  "    in  the  tenth  commandment. 

(d)  It  has  been  suggested  that  originally  all  the  com- 
mandments consisted,  like  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth, 


Bzod.  20: i,  aa; 
Bzod.  24: 12; 
Deut.  5:4; 
Acts  7:  535 
Gal.  3:19; 
Heb.  a: a. 
Ezod.  34:28,  29; 
Deut.  4:13; 
Deut.  5:2;  9:5; 
10:4. 


Bzod.  20:8; 

cf.  Deut.  5:12; 
Bzod.  20: 12; 

cf.  Deut.  5:16; 
Bzod.  20: 17; 

cf.  Dent.  5:21. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  2$ 

of  one  or  two  words,  and  that  the  remainder,  e.  g.,  in  the 
second,  third,  and  fifth,  was  added  at  a  later  time. 

(e)  It  is  divided  (i)  into  ten  words,  but  the  division  is 
not  clear,  since  the  Lutheran  and  Romish  churches  com- 
bine the  first  and  second  as  one  and  divide  the  tenth ; 
(2)  into  two  tables,  but,  here  again,  Jewish  and  Christian 
scholars,  ancient  and  modern,  fail  to  agree,  three  methods 
being  advocated,  according  as  the  two  tables  contained, 
the  first,  three  commandments,  and  the  second,  seven  ; 
the  first,  four, and  the  second,  six;  the  first,  five, and  the 
second,  five. 

(2)  The  small  book  of  the  covenant,  the  laws  of  which   Erod.  34:12-14; 

34  •  '7!  34: I9|2O; 

may  thus  be  grouped  :  (a)  five  on  the  dutv  of  worship-      34:21, 18,22, 

*  S3!  34:25i  a6. 

ing  only  Jehovah ;  (t>)  one  on  image-worship ;  (<:)  five  on 
the  offering  of  firstlings;  (</)  five  on  feasts;  (<?)  four  on 
sacrifices  and  offerings.  These  laws  seem  to  have  been 
written  in  groups  of  five  or  ten,  groups  (H)  and  (e)  hav- 
ing lost  part  of  their  number.  They  are  all  directly 
concerned  with  worship. 

(3)  The  large  book  of  the  covenant,  which  contains  :  (a)   Ezod.  20:33-36; 

five  enactments  on  worship;*  (b}  five  on  rights  of  slaves  ;      ii;ax:'ia-x6; 

ax:  17;  ax:i8- 
(V)  five  on  slave  concubines;  (d]  five  on  acts  of  violence.      as;ai:a6— aa:i 

aa:a-6;  33:7- 

Then  follows  one  (a  fragment)  on  the  reviling  of  father  and      17; «a  =  »8-3o; 
mother.     After  that  (e)  five  on  personal  injuries  ;  (/)  and      33-38-30- 

aa :  31 ;  33 : 1-3 ; 

(g)  ten  on  injuries  in  connection  with  property,  slaves,  and  23-4-5;  23:6-9; 
cattle  ;  (h)  five  on  theft  and  damage  to  property ;  (/)  and 
(/)  ten  on  breaches  of  trust.  Then  follow  three  frag- 
ments on  sexual  crimes,  magic,  sacrifice  to  other  gods. 
After  that  (£)  five  on  the  dealings  with  the  weak  and 
poor ;  (/)  five  on  reverence  and  offerings.  Then  follow 
two  on  purity.  After  that  (m)  five  on  testimony.  Then 
follow  two  on  kindness.  After  that  («)  five  on  justice, 
and  (o)  and  (/)  ten  on  feasts  and  offerings.  In  all  there 
are  sixteen  groups  of  five,  and  eight  fragments  of  groups, 
each  of  which  probably  consisted  of  five. 

A  study  of  the  subjects  given  above,  and  a  reading 
of  the  enactments,  will  show  the  early  character  of  these 
laws  as  contrasted  with  those  given  in  Deuteronomy  and 
Leviticus.  It  is  to  be  noted  (i)  that  the  greater  part  of 

1  In  this  classification  the  laws  relating  to  worship  are  italicized. 


26  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

this  code  is  concerned  with  subjects  which  are  not  today 
thought  of  as  religious,  but  that  in  early  times  there  was 
no  distinction  between  "religious"  and  " secular "- 
everything  was  religious;  (2)  that  all  the  enactments 
concerning  religion,  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word, 
have  to  do  with  its  objective  features  —  feasts,  sacrifices, 
offerings,  ritual,  etc. —  all  of  which  is  included  in  wor- 
ship. It  is  these  enactments  that  lie  back  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  prophets  down  to  about  650  B.  C. 

In  the  next  study  it  will  appear  that  great  and  fundamental  changes 
are  to  occur  after  650  B.  C.  in  all  the  regulations  which  concern  the 
subject  of  worship  and  its  allied  subjects. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP    IN    THE    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD 

§  21.  The  Middle  Old  Testament  Period  (see  §  14  (2))   a  Kings  22: 8- 

23  •  3* 

had  for  its  most  striking  event  the  discovery  and  pub- 
lication of  the  book  of  the  law,  known  in  these 
later  times  as  Deuteronomy.  It  is  impossible  here,  as 
in  the  history  of  any  period,  to  draw  sharp  lines  of 
separation. 

(1)  Just   when    this    middle    period    began    cannot 
be  faxed  definitely.     But    this    much  is  clear,  that   the 
work  of   the   prophets  (cf.  §  18)  in   the  years   preced- 
ing 621   B.   C.   (a)    pointed    out    the  evils  which  had  Amos 5:24;  9:7; 

Hos.  8 : 5, 6, 14 ; 

crept   into  the  worship  of   the    people;    (<£)    presented 

such  conceptions  of   God's  justice,  love,  holiness,  and  isa.  1:12-17; 
.  ,   ,       .,       ,     .,      ...  6:1-5;  etc. 

unity  as  would  furnish  a  basis  for  higher  and  more  spir- 
itual forms  of  worship  than  those  which  were  already 
in  existence ;  and  this  (c)  prepared  the  way  for  some- 
thing which,  up  to  this  time,  the  people  could  not 
appreciate. 

(2)  Just  when  this  middle  period  ended  is   likewise 
indefinite,  but  it  is  evident  that  after  and  out  of  this 
period  there  came  a  still  higher  form  of  worship,  des- 
tined in  God's  providence  (a)  to  endure  through  a  period 
of  great   political  and    religious  upheaval,    and  (b}  to 
serve  as  the  basis  for  a  worship  still  higher  in  its  ideals 
and  in  its  spiritual  character. 

§  22.  Three  Distinct  Stages  May  be  Traced  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  middle  or  Deuteronomic  period.  These  may 
be  classified  as : 

(1)  The pre-exilic  stage,  which  ended  with  the  removal  2  Kings  25:8-31. 
of  the  people  from  their  land  and  with  the  destruction 

of  the  temple  around  which  the  whole  system  of  worship 
centered. 

(2)  The  exilic  stage,  during  which  the  people  were  in 
Babylon,  away  from  all  the  familiar  scenes  of  worship 

27 


28 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Ezra,  chap,  i , 
7:  i-io. 


3  Kings  18 :  4  ; 
cf.  Isa.  36:7. 


Amos  7:9; 
Hos.  10 :  i,  a; 
Isa.  30:33;  31:7. 


3  Kings  33 : 13. 


3  Kings  18:13: 
cf.  18 : 33-35- 


3  Kings  19 : 20- 37. 


Dent.  13 : 3-19. 


and  under  the  influence  of  an  entirely  new  religious 
environment. 

(3)  The  post-exilic  stage,  beginning  with  the  return 
from  exile,  including  the  building  of  the  second  temple, 
and  ending  approximately  with  the  visit  of  Ezra  to 
Jerusalem. 

§  23.  The  Deliverance  of  Jerusalem  in  Hezekiah's  Day 
(701  B.  C.)  had  exerted  a  marked  influence  on  worship. 
To  Hezekiah  is  ascribed  an  important  work  as  reformer, 
in  that  he  (i)  removed  the  high  places,  (2)  broke  the  pillars, 
(3)  cut  down  the  Asherim,  (4)  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen 
serpent  that  Moses  had  made,  which,  in  his  day,  was  wor- 
shiped as  a  representation  of  God  in  Jerusalem.  In  so  far 
as  these  things  were  accomplished,  Hezekiah  was  acting 
in  accordance  with  the  commands  of  the  prophets  (see 
§  1 8).  But  it  seems  that  the  work  was  not  as  thorough- 
going as  it  might  have  been,  since  in  Josiah's  times, 
seventy  or  eighty  years  later,  the  high  places  erected  by 
Solomon  near  Jerusalem  were  still  in  existence.  Heze- 
kiah's reformation,  however  transient,  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from  Sennach- 
erib and  the  Assyrian  army  in  701  B.  C.  This  invasion 
had  two  results  :  (i)  The  outlying  villages  with  their  high 
places  were  destroyed  and  dishonored,  and  the  country 
people  came  to  see  that  the  worship  as  practiced  in  the 
high  places  was  of  no  avail  in  times  of  great  distress.  (2) 
Jerusalem,  the  temple,  and  the  God  whose  worship  was 
conducted  in  the  temple  (a  worship  beyond  question 
comparatively  pure)  were  delivered,  and  thereby  greatly 
honored,  for  the  whole  nation  had  therein  a  posi- 
tive experience  of  Jehovah's  power.  This  paved  the 
way  for  the  exaltation  of  the  temple-worship  and  the 
destruction  of  the  worship  in  the  high  places,  changes 
which  together  form  the  great  characteristic  of  the  mid- 
dle period. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (2d  ed.),  pp.  353-64; 
CORNILL,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  67  f.;  DRIVER,  Isaiah,  His  Life 
and  Times,  pp.  66-83  5  the  article  "  Hezekiah  "  in  HASTINGS'  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II,  p.  377 ;  and  the  corresponding  article 
(§  i)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD 


2Q 


§  24.  Manasseh's  Reign  Brought  a  Great  Reaction.  — 
This  came  about  because  (i)  the  prophetic  party  (that  is, 
the  party  of  reformers)  pushed  forward  more  rapidly 
than  the  people  could  follow,  e.  g.,  (a)  in  destroying  the 
objects  and  places  of  worship  held  in  veneration  by  the 
people  for  many  centuries,  and  (b}  in  holding  up  con- 
ceptions  of  God  and  of  life  which  the  people  were  still  too 
ignorant  and  debased  to  appreciate;  (2)  the  people  were 
disappointed  in  the  hope,  raised  by  the  prophets,  that 
with  Jerusalem's  deliverance  Assyria  would  perish,  when, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  Assyria  still  remained  powerful,  sub- 
duing  Egypt  and  taking  tribute  from  Judah  ;  (3)  the 
people  believed  that  this  failure  of  their  desires  and  the 
consequent  adversity  had  their  origin  in  the  proposed 
reforms  of  the  prophets,  and  that  these  very  reforms 
(e.  g.,  the  breaking  down  of  the  high  places)  were  dis- 
pleasing to  Jehovah. 

The  reaction  exhibited  itself  in  (i)  the  murder  of  the 
prophets  and  their  partisans  ;  (2)  setting  up  again  the  idols, 
and  the  Asherim;  (3)  giving  permission  to  enchanters 
and  augurs  and  witches  and  wizards  to  practice  their 
arts;  (4)  encouraging  human  sacrifice;  (5)  introducing 
the  worship  of  other  gods  even  within  the  temple  itself, 
e.  g.,  the  host  of  heaven  —  the  chariots  of  the  sun  being 
placed  within  the  temple. 

§  25.  The  Discovery  of  the  Deuteronomic  Law  followed 
a  generation  or  so  of  prophetic  silence.  This  silence 
was  occasioned  by  persecution,  and  had  for  its  result 
the  production  of  a  work  which,  in  itself,  summed  up 
prophecy  and  furnished  the  text-book  of  worship  for  a 
long  time  to  come.  While  the  mouth  of  the  prophet 
was  closed,  his  pen  worked.  In  this  work  the  lessons 
of  Manasseh's  reaction  were  taken  into  account  ;  for  the 
new  order  of  worship,  while  revolutionary  in  some 
aspects,  was,  after  all,  an  evolution  from  that  which  pre- 

ceded it.    The  new  cult  went  as  far  as  possible  in  retain- 

i  ,  j       i  j  •  j  •         ,  i 

ing  old  usages  and  old  ceremonies,  thus  avoiding  the 

difficulties  occurring  in  connection  with  the  earlier 
attempts  at  reformation.  Many  other  things  were 
learned  anew  from  the  experience  of  the  reaction,  e.  g., 


aKingsi8:4; 


a  Chron.  33  :  H. 


cf.  jer.  44  :  15-19. 


2  Kings  sine; 

Jer.  a  :  30. 

2  Kings  21  :  3-5. 


aKingsaire; 
Mic-  6:6>  7- 
a  Kings  21:3,4; 


Deut.  4  .-  15-19  ; 
Deut.'  17  ' 


Deut.  15:19; 
Deut.  16  :  16. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Ter  .i:i,a; 

Zeph.  i:  i. 

a  Kings  23:1,  a. 
a  Kings  22:3-8. 


Deut.  ia : a-«.  the  demoralizing  influence  of  the  high  places,  and  the 
necessity  of  purging  and  purifying  the  ritual.  These 
were  incorporated  in  the  written  document. 

See  CnEVNE,JtremiaA,  His  Life  and  Times,  pp.  62-4 ;  CORNILL, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  80-82 ;  DRIVER,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary 
on  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xlix-lxii. 

No  opportunity,  however,  presented  itself  under 
Manasseh  or  Amon  for  the  promulgation  of  this  book. 
It  was  put  away  in  the  temple.  In  Josiah's  reign,  (i) 
when  the  hearts  of  the  people  were  being  turned  to 
Jehovah  by  the  terror  aroused  in  connection  with  the 
Scythian  invasion ;  (2)  when  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah 
were  preaching  with  all  the  vigor  of  the  older  prophets ; 
(3)  when  Josiah,  a  young  man,  was  turning  his  face  in  the 
direction  of  the  true  God  ;  (4)  when  the  temple  was  being 
cleansed  and  repaired,  in  order  that  Jehovah  might  be 
thereby  honored  —  then  this  book,  the  book  of  Deuter- 
onomy, was  discovered,  brought  to  the  king,  read  to  him, 
and  read  again  to  the  people.  The  immediate  circum- 
stances of  this  discovery  are  described  in  some  detail ;  e.  g. : 
(i)  The  book  was  found  by  Hilkiah,  the  high -priest,  and 
given  by  him  to  Shaphan,  the  scribe,  who  read  it,  took  it 

a  Kings  22:11-14.  to  King  Josiah,  and  read  it  to  him.  (2)  The  king  was 
greatly  grieved  as  he  listened  and  realized  how  far  short 
of  the  demands  of  this  book  the  religious  life  of  Israel 
had  fallen.  He  at  once  sent  a  delegation  of  leading  men 
to  Huldah,  a  prophetess,  to  inquire  Jehovah's  will  con- 

a  Kings  22: 15-20.  cerning  the  book.  (3)  She  declared  that  the  judg- 
ments it  contained  would  fall  upon  Israel  because  of 
their  desertion  of  Jehovah  and  their  worship  of  other 
gods,  but  that  Josiah  would  reign  in  peace  because  of 
his  faithfulness  to  Jehovah.  (4)  Upon  hearing  this, 
Josiah  called  a  great  meeting  of  all  the  people,  read  the 
newly  found  book  to  them,  and  caused  them  to  join  him 
in  a  covenant  with  Jehovah  to  conform  to  Jehovah's 
requirements  as  laid  down  therein.  Thereupon  the  work 
of  reform  was  begun  throughout  the  land. 

§  26.  The  Results  of  the  Finding  of  Deuteronomy  are 
very  fully  given  us  in  the  sacred  narrative.  These  results 
constituted  what  is  called  Josiah's  reformation,  and 
included : 


a  Kings  22 :  8-10. 


a  Kings  23: 1-3. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  3! 

(1)  The  destruction   of  the   high  places  and  altars  *  Kings  33: 8,  ia, 
throughout  the  land. 

(2)  The  breaking  down  of  the  pillars  and  Asherim.        a  Kings  23: 6, 14. 

(3)  The  removal  of  the  teraphim  and  other  idols.  a  Kings  23: 24. 

(4)  The  destruction  of  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the  a  Kings  23:11. 
sun. 

(5)  The   deposition    and    destruction    of   idolatrous  2  Kings  23:5,8,9, 
priests  and  of  the  priests  of  the  high  places. 

(6)  The  abolition  of  human  sacrifice.  a  Kings  23:10. 

(7)  The  observance  of  the  Feast  of  the  Passover.  a  Kings  23:21-33. 

(8)  The  prohibition  of  sorcerers  and  wizards.  a  Kings  23 =34. 

(9)  The  purification  of  worship  involved  in   doing  a  Kings  23: 7. 
away  with  the  Sodomites. 

Two  things  may  be  said  :  (a)  There  is  nothing  essen- 
tial commanded  in  Deuteronomy  which  Josiah  did  not 
try  to  do ;  (b)  every  single  act  of  the  reformation  will  be 
found  commanded  in  Deuteronomy. 

§  27.  The  Teaching  of  Deuteronomy  on  the  more 
important  points  of  worship  may  be  briefly  summarized 
as  follows :  * 

(1)  Object  of  worship. — Jehovah  only  is  to  be  wor-   Deut.  6:4;  10:20; 
shiped;  all  idols  and  other  objects  of  worship  must  be      le-aif.'^i^as' 
destroyed. 

(2)  Place  of  worship. —  Worship  is  permitted  only  at   Deut.  12:2-7,  «. 

17  f.»   26~28t 

one  central  sanctuary,  viz.,  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.    All 
local  shrines  are  to  be  destroyed. 

(3)  Priests. —  These  now  become  a  distinct  class,  the  Deut.  10:8,9. 
tribe  of  Levi  being  set  apart  to  perform  the  priestly 
function.      There    are,    of   course,    more    Levites   than 

are   needed   for  priests;    these  are  to  be  teachers  and 

judges.     The  duties  of  the  Levites  at  the  local  sanctua-   Deut.  i8:i-a 

ries  being  abolished,  many  of  them  are  naturally  without 

means  of  support,  and  special  provision  has  to  be  made 

for  them  in  the  law. 

(4)  Sacrifice. — The  continuance  of  sacrifice  is  taken  Deut.  13:131; 
for  granted,  but  every  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  at  the 

central  sanctuary.     All  firstlings  are,  as  before,  especially 
designated  as  sacrifices  to  Jehovah. 

1  For  an  examination  of  this  book  as  a  code  of  laws,  see  pp.  I55~69- 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Deut.  5 : 12-15. 
Deut  15 :  i  18. 


Jer.  34:1-80. 
Deut.  16 : 1-15. 


Dent.  14:  3-31. 


Deut.  33 : 31-33. 

Deut.  14:  28  f. ; 

36: is. 
Deut.  1 8 : 10-13 ; 

33:17*.;  14:1- 

Dent.  9 : 30,  36-39. 


Deut.  6:4;  4 :  38 ; 
10:17. 


Deut.  4 :  33-36 ; 
</.  Exod.  19 :  6. 


Deut.  13 :  3-7. 


Deut.  10 : 8. 


(5)  Days  and  seasons. —  Set  times   of   worship   are 
appointed  to  be  observed  :  (a)  The  sabbath  is  preserved 
unchanged.     (&)  The  sabbatical  year  becomes  established, 
and  is  extended  to  the  cancellation  of  all  debts  owed  by 
Hebrews  to  their  fellow-countrymen  and  to  the  release 
of  all  Hebrew  slaves.    There  was  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  enforce  this  provision  with  reference  to  slaves  in  the 
reign  of  Zedekiah.     (c)  Three  annual  feasts  are  fixed,  as 
before,  in  connection  with  the  agricultural  seasons ;  but, 
like  all  other  acts  of  worship,  they  are  to  be  celebrated  at 
Jerusalem.     New  elements  appear  in  the  fixing  of  the 
duration  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  at  seven  days,  and 
of  Pentecost  at  one  day,  and  in  the  connection  of  the 
Passover  with  the  exodus  from  Egypt.     No  reference  is 
made  to  feasts  of  the  moon. 

(6)  Other  acts  of  worship. —  (a)  A  list  of  clean  and 
unclean  animals   is  given  ;    this  classification  probably 
had  a  religious  basis ;  (b)  faithfulness  in  the  performance 
of  vows  is  enjoined ;  (c)  a.  triennial  tithe  is  imposed  which  is 
to  be  given  to  the  Levite,  the  widow,  and  the  poor;  (d] 
perverted  acts  of  worship,  such  as  human  sacrifice,  sorcery, 
etc.,  are  prohibited;  (<?)  prayers  of  Moses  are  recorded. 

See  CHEYNE,  op.cit.,  pp.  64-7  ;  DRIVER,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical 
Commentary  on  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xix-xxxiv;  article  "Deuteronomy" 
(§§  27-32)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I ;  and  corresponding  article 
(§  iv)  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I. 

§  28.  The  Full  Significance  of  the  Deuteronomic  Prin- 
ciples, the  Spirit  with  which  These  are  Presented,  and  the 
Great  Changes  Wrought  by  Their  Adoption  are  difficult  to 
appreciate.  Some  of  these  points  may  be  noted  : 

(1)  The  fundamental  idea  is  that  there  is  but  one 
god   worthy  to   be  called   God;   other  gods  are  wood 
and  stone. 

(2)  With  such  a  God  dealing  directly  with  the  nation, 
Israel's  life  must  be  high  and  holy ;  for  otherwise  it  will 
be  unworthy. 

(3)  There  shall  be  only  one  place  of  worship,  and 
that  the  temple  in  Jerusalem;  in  this  way  the  licentious 
nature-worship  can  be  done  away  with. 

(4)  The  conduct  of  worship  must  be  guarded,  and 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  33 

consequently  it  is  placed  under  the  control  of  a  special 
tribe,  the  Levites. 

(5)  The  method  of  presentation  is  a  wonderful  one* 

being  twofold,  prophetic  and  priestly;  viz.,  (a)  exhorta-   Deut.  4:1-13; 
tions  of  the  most  "sweetly  impressive"  character,  full  of 
spiritual  strength;   (£)  laws,  many  of  them  dating  from   Deut.  5:6-21. 
the  earliest  times,  others  from  a  later  period  ;  some  of  Deut.,  chaps. 
them  apparently  arbitrary  in  their  tone,  others  full   of 
the  reasons  which  should  lead  to  their  observance. 

(6)  The  spirit  throughout  is  the  spirit  of  love,  and  is  Deut.  7:7-10; 

Deut.  10  :  18-15. 

akin  to  that  exhibited  in  the  book  of  Hosea.  "The 
primal  love  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  fills  the  foreground  of 
each  writer's  discourse,  and  all  human  relationships  within 
the  Israelitish  community  are  rooted  in  this."2  But  this  Eeut.  e  :  17-19  ; 

1  Deut.  10:18. 

love  is  no  sentimental  love;  Israel's  God  is  a  God  of 
justice  as  well  as  of  love. 

(7)  The     restriction    of    worship    to    one    place    is  Deut.  14  :  32-37. 
"  tantamount  to  a  suppression  of  religion  in  the  whole 

country  outside  of  Jerusalem."3     How  can  the  country 

people  now  consult   Jehovah?     The  neighboring  altar  Deut.  19:  1-13. 

to  which  the  fugitive  might  flee  and  be  safe  is  done  away 

with,  and  distant  cities  of  refuge  are  only  a  partial  sub- 

stitute ;  while  the  function  of  the  altar  as  a  place  to 

which  the  people  might  come  and  receive  judgment  is 

given  to  the  gates  of  the  cities  and  to  the  temple  at  Jeru-  Deut.  16:  18; 

salem.    Israel  in  the  country  must  now  live  without  God, 

with  whom  before  he  had  lived  so  closely. 

(8)  The  feasts  are  beginning  to  be  denaturalized  ;  that 
is,  they  are  losing  their  agricultural  significance,  and  are 
to  be  more  and  more  closely  associated  with  historical 
events  —  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  with  the  flight 
from  Egypt;  the  .Feast  of  Weeks,  with  the  giving  of  the  law 
on  Sinai  ;  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  with  the  journey  in 
the  desert.     Religion  is  a  matter  of  fixed  days  and  sea- 
sons, rather  than  an  everyday  affair. 

(9)  The  setting  apart  of  priests,  and  the  placing  of 

See  article  "Feasts"  (§§9,  10)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II; 
WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  91  f.;  COR- 
NILL,  op.  cit.,  p.  86. 


»CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  p.  66.  sCoRNiLL,  op.  cil.,  p.  85. 


34  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

all  worship  in  their  hands,  thus  compelling  the  people 
to  make  use  of  them,  while  beforetime  the  use  of  a  priest 
was  voluntary,  draws  the  line  sharply  between  laity  and 

Deut.  18:3:31:5;  clergy.     The  priest  changes  his  function;  for  he  is  now 

Deut.  if: g,  12 ;       preeminently  a  sacrificer,  while  before  he  consulted  the 
oracle  and  announced  the  divine  will. 

Deut.  14:24!.;  (10)    The   significance    of    the   sacrifice   is    greatly 

changed.  Sacrifice  being  lawful  only  at  the  one  central 
sanctuary,  it  was  offered  for  the  most  part  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  three  great  yearly  festivals  when  all 
Israelites  were  required  to  be  at  Jerusalem.  The  popular, 
joyous  aspect  of  it  as  a  banquet  and  as  an  offering  of 
joy  and  thanksgiving,  made  frequently  and  in  connection 
with  any  suitable  occasion,  now  begins  to  disappear,  and 
a  more  and  more  solemn  and  expiatory  character  is  given 
to  all  sacrifice. 

Deut.  4:40;  6:  i-          (n)  What  is  it  henceforth  to  be  religious  ?     To  do 
i'lxjs'Vif'1'       the  thing  laid  down  in  a  book.     The  day  that  saw  Deut- 
eronomy accepted,  its  ritual  of  worship  adopted,  and  its 
teaching  concerning  priest  and  sacrifice  recognized — that 
day  saw  the  beginning  of  the  death  of  prophecy.     It  was, 
of  course,  the  prophets'  own  work ;  but  they  had  estab- 
lished the  agency  by  which,  later,  they  themselves  would 
be  strangled ;  because  from  this  time  forward  the  voice 
of  the  prophet  is  unnecessary. 
See  CORNILL,  op.  cit.,  p.  89. 

(12)  The   adoption   of  Deuteronomy  signified   the 
separation  of  church  and  state.     This  was  necessary,  for 
the  state  is  soon  to  die — within  thirty-five  years.     This 
separation  made  it  possible  for  the  church  to  live,  after 
the  death  of  the  state. 

See  CORNILL,  op.  cit.,  p.  88. 

(13)  The  act  of  Josiah  and  his  people  in  accepting 
Deuteronomy  was  the  first  step  toward  the  canonization 
of  Holy  Scripture — the  first  step  in  a  long  line  of  similar 
events  which  have  given  us  the  Bible  with  our  modern 
conceptions  of  inspiration. 

(14)  ///  a  word,  worship,  whether  viewed  narrowly  or 
broadly,  is  henceforth  almost^,  new  thing.     The  Israelitish 
religion  seems  to  have  been  revolutionized.     Of  course, 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD   TESTAMENT    PERIOD  35 

a  closer  study  shows  that  all  this  was  evolution,  not 
revolution ;  the  prophets  had  prepared  the  way;  the 
prophets  and  priests  worked  together.  A  priest  found 
the  book  .  and  gave  it  to  the  king,  and  the  priests 
received  through  this  book  privileges  they  had  never 
before  enjoyed. 

See  BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp.  171-9. 
§  29.   A  Second  Reaction  followed  after  thirteen  years 
of  successful  work  on  the  part  of  Jeremiah  and  Josiah. 

(1)  Jeremiah  at  the  beginning  of  the  reformation  had  Jer.  n:i-6, 18-33. 
preached  the  contents  of  this  book  throughout  the  vil- 
lages of  Judah,  sometimes  incurring  the  opposition  and 
persecution  of  his  friends. 

(2)  The  times  that  followed  for  thirteen   years  were 
quiet  and  prosperous ;   the  king  and  the  people  lived 
before  God  and  received  his  blessing. 

(3)  Perhaps  during  this  time  the  work  of  the  sages   Cf-  PTOV.,  chaps, 
began  to  flourish.  Jer.  tsirs. 

(4)  Assyria  was  losing  ground:    Necho  of  Egypt  a  Kings  23:29; 

j  &j  r     3  chron.  35 : 20-24. 

(608  B.  C.)  began  to  encroach  upon  the  Assyrian  terri- 
tory. Josiah  met  him  at  the  battle  of  Megiddo  and  was 
slain.  The  reformation  failed.  The  people  believed 
the  king's  death  was  a  divine  punishment  for  changing 
the  forms  of  worship  in  their  religion.  The  opposing  a  Kings  23  =36  f. ; 
party  gained  control,  and  then  followed  the  series  of 
events  which  resulted,  in  a  few  years,  in  the  downfall  of 
the  kingdom. 

§  30.  The  Significance  of  the  Babylonian  Exile  in  its 
Relationship  to  Worship  cannot  easily  be  overestimated. 
Its  effect  upon  some  of  the  principal  ideas  and  institu- 
tions may  be  noted  here  : 

(i)    Object  of  worship. — The  removal  to    Babylonia  a  Kings  35 : 13-17 
involved  the  leaving  behind  of  all  idolatrous  objects  of 
worship,  or  their  confiscation  or  destruction  by  the  con- 
queror.     The  leaders  of  Israel's  religious   life   looked  Ezek.  e :  11-14 ; 
upon  idolatry  as  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  exile. 
The   removal   from   the  land  with  which   Jehovah   had 
always  been  associated  to  a  land  which  was  the  dominion 

of  another  god  also  involved  either  an  acknowledgment  isa.  40 : 13-31 ; 

44: 9-20;  45: 5-7; 
of  the  power  of  this  foreign  god,  or  else  the  maintenance     46:5-7. 


36  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  a  belief  in  Jehovah's  supremacy  and  universality.  That 
this  higher  conception  of  Jehovah  prevailed  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  we  hear  nothing  of  idolatry  after  the  return 
from  the  exile,  and  especially  from  the  teachings  of  Isa., 
chaps.  40-66. 

(2)  Place  of  worship. — The  temple  being  destroyed, 
and  all  the  familiar  scenes  of  worship  being  left  behind, 
together  with  all  material  and  external  reminders  of 

isa. 45:18-32;        Jehovah's  presence,  the  worshipers  were  necessarily  led 

isa.  5"  12,13.  to  a  more  spiritual  conception  of  God.  Moreover, 
absence  from  the  temple  developed  an  ability  to  do  with- 
out the  temple  services  which  was  in  part  responsible  for 
the  origin  of  synagogues. 

Ezck.,  chaps.  40-  (3)  The  occupation  of  the  priests  was  gone,  in  so  far 
as  it  was  dependent  upon  the  temple.  The  book  of 
Ezekiel  furnishes  an  illustration  of  one  phase  of  priestly 

isa.  61:6.  activity  during  these  days.     The  thought  of  Israel  as  a 

nation  of  priests  appears. 

isa.  43:22-24;  (4)  Sacrifice  could  no  longer  be  offered,  but  it  did  not 

lose  any  of  its  importance  in  the  thought  of  the  people. 

isa.  56:2,  4,  6;  (5)   Times  and  seasons. — (a)   The  sabbath,  being  an 

institution  which  was  independent  of  the  temple,  could  still 
be  kept,  and  it  received  much  emphasis  during  and  after 
this  period.  Sabbaths  were  also  observed  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, (ft)  Feasts,  which  had  always  been  occasions  of 
joy,  could  no  longer  be  observed  legally,  and  emphasis 

isa.  58:3-5.  was  laid  on  (c)  fasts,  which  were  of  an  exactly  opposite 

character  and  were  not  dependent  upon  the  temple. 

(6)  Other  acts  of  worship. — (a)  In  the  absence  of  all 
the  regular  public  means  of  worship,  those  who  wor- 
shiped "in  spirit  and  in  truth"  naturally  had  frequent 

153.63:15—64:12;  recourse  to  prayer.     The  future  temple  is  thought  of  as 

isa.  52': i,  ii.  a  house  of  prayer.  (K)  The  recognition  of  the  captivity 
as  a  punishment  for  sin  led  to  an  exalted  conception  of 
Jehovah's  holiness  and  to  the  laying  of  great  emphasis 

isa.  65:1-7,  ii ;  upon  ceremonial  cleanness,  (c]  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  many  became  apostates  from  the  Jehovah-worship 
and  took  up  the  worship  of  their  conquerors. 

Cf.  Bzek.  10: 9-22.  (7)  The  influence  of  the  Babylonian  worship  on  Israel's 
ritual  is  evident  in  succeeding  ritualistic  legislation,  as 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  37 

also  in  some  of  Ezekiel's  imagery.  Jehovah  through  the 
exile  again  brought  Israel  into  contact  with  a  great 
religion,  as  he  had  already  done  in  the  case  of  Baalism. 
Just  as  Israel  had  learned  some  truths  through  Baalism, 
and  to  some  extent  had  enriched  the  cultus  of  Jehovah 
thereby,  so  was  she  to  do  through  the  agency  of  Baby- 
lon's worship. 

§31.  The  Priest-Prophet  of  the  Captivity,  Ezekiel, 
occupied  an  important  place  in  the  further  development 
of  the  ritual  of  worship.  His  place  may  only  be 
touched  upon  here.  With  prophetic  idealism,  legalist 
though  he  was,  his  vision  pictured  a  future  temple,  a 
future  service,  and  a  future  priesthood,  as  follows  : 

(a)  The  temple. — While  the  temple  of  Solomon  had 
been  virtually  a  part  of  the  royal  palace,  the  new  temple 
is  to  be  wholly  separate  from  the  royal  dwellings  and 
from  all  other  ordinary  habitations  ;  for  it  is  the  earthly 
habitation  of  the  most  holy  God,  who  had  abandoned  Bzek.  4551-8. 
the  former  city  and  temple  because  of  their  profanation  by 
sin  and  uncleanness.  To  prevent  any  such  profanation 
of  Jehovah  in  future 

the  sacred  "oblation,"  the  domain  of  the  priests,  Levites,  Ezek. 48:7-33. 
prince,  and  city,  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  restored  tribes, 
Judah  on  one  side  of  it  and  Benjamin  on  the  other.  In  the 
midst  of  this  oblation  is  the  portion  of  the  priests,  that  of  the 
Levites  lying  on  one  side,  and  that  of  the  city  on  the  other. 
In  the  middle  of  the  priests'  portion  stands  the  temple.  This 
is  a  great  complex  of  buildings,  around  which  on  all  sides  lies 
a  free  space  or  suburbs.  Then  comes  a  great  wall  surround- 
ing the  whole  buildings,  forming  a  square  of  five  hundred 
cubits.  Within  this  wall  is  an  outer  court,  and  within  this 

an  inner  court In  this  inner  court  stands  the  altar, 

and  to  the  back  of  it  the  temple  house.  The  house  has  also 
a  graduated  series  of  compartments  increasing  in  sanctity 
inwards  —  an  outer  apartment  or  porch,  an  inner  or  holy 
place,  and  an  innermost,  where  the  presence  of  Jehovah 
abides.4 

(£)   The  priests. — The  sons  of  Zadok  only  are  to  be   Ezek.  44:4-16. 
priests ;  all  other  Levites  are  to  be  subordinate  ministers, 
performing   the    more   menial    tasks  of   the  sanctuary. 

4  DAVIDSON,  The  Book  of  Ezekiel  (Cambridge  Bible),  p.  290. 


38 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Bzek.  44  =  17-38. 


Bzek.  44  :  29,  30. 


Ezek.  43  ;  18-36  ; 

43  :  13  ;  44  :  vj. 

Bzek.  43:27; 
Bzek.  43:13. 
Ezek.  46:13-15. 
Ezek.  46  :  19-24. 


Bzek.  44:24. 
Bzek.  45:17— 


Jer.  in. 


Dent.,  chaps. 


Deut.  18:5; 
c/.  judg.  17:7-13. 


Foreigners  are  not  to  be  permitted  to  enter  the  temple, 
as  heretofore,  to  perform  any  tasks.  The  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  is  clearly  marked  ;  none  of  the 
latter  —  not  even  the  prince  —  may  enter  the  inner  court 
of  the  temple.  The  sanctity  of  the  priests  as  the  ones 
ministering  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  is  strongly  empha- 
sized and  guarded  in  many  ways,  such  as  the  requirement 
that  they  wear  special  garments  while  discharging  their 
sacred  functions.  They  live  upon  their  share  of  the  sac- 
rifices of  the  people. 

(<:)  Sacrifice  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  ritual. 
The  various  kinds  mentioned  are  :  (i)  the  sin-offering. 
which  is  much  emphasized;  (2)  burnt-offerings,  which 
are  numerous;  (3)  the  trespass  -offering,  which  was  a 
variety  of  the  sin-offering  ;  (4)  the  meal-offering;  (5)  the 
peace-offering;  (6)  the  continual  burnt-  offering  made  every 
morning.  Special  places  are  provided  for  the  cooking 
of  the  offerings  that  are  to  be  eaten  by  priests  and  people. 

(ft)  Times  and  seasons.  —  The  old  times  are  all  to  be 
observed,  viz.,  the  sabbath,  the  new  moons,  and  the  three 
feasts,  the  Passover  receiving  special  notice. 

§32.  The  Priestly  Character  of  the  Prophetic  Work  of 
These  Times  appears  most  strongly.  This  means  that  the 
priest-work  was  gaining  ground,  while  the  prophetic  work 
was  losing  ground.  Butitwill  benoted  that(#)anewsitua- 
tion  was  coming  in  which  the  priest-work  would  be  more 
greatly  needed  ;  and  (b)  the  priest-work  had  taken  into 
itself  all  that  had  been  contributed  by  the  prophets.  It 
is  true,  therefore,  that  not  the  priest-work  pure  and 
simple,  but  the  priest-work  as  strengthened  by,  and  as 
containing,  the  truth  proclaimed  through  prophets,  was 
the  power  that  now  held  the  forefront. 

This  priestly  element  is  seen  — 

(1)  In  the  priestly  birth  and  character  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah,  whose   home   was    at  Anathoth,  one    of   the 
headquarters  of  the  priests. 

(2)  In  the  priestly  character  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy. 

(3)  In  the  position  now  occupied  by  the  priests  as 
compare(j  wjth  their  former  position. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  39 

(4)  In  the  priestly  character  and  service  of  Ezekiel.      Ezek.  i : 3 ;  chaps 

'  40-48. 

§33.    The   Return   of    the   People  from   the   Babylo-   Ezra  2:64! 

nian  Exile  introduced  an  entirely  new  situation.  It  was 
one,  however,  in  which  for  eighty  years  (538-458  B.  C.) 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy  and  its  regulations  were 
supreme.  It  was  a  time  of  discouragement;  the  high 
hopes  of  the  returning  exiles  were  dashed  to  the  ground 
in  the  presence  of  desolated  homes,  wasted  lands,  fail- 
ure of  crops,  loss  of  political  independence,  and  the  cy.  Sag.  a :  15-19. 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  struggle  against  these 
adverse  conditions  seems  to  have  absorbed  most  of  their 
energies  during  the  first  years  after  the  return,  the  re- 
quirements of  worship  being  largely  neglected.  We 
may  note  the  attitude  toward  some  of  the  principal 
institutions. 

(a)  The  temple.  —  Partly  because  of  opposition  on  the  Ezra 5: a; 
part  of  certain  enemies,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  dis-  Ezra  el  15.' 
couragement  and    indifference,   the  foundation   of    the 
temple  was  not  laid  until  December,  520  B.  C.,  eighteen 
years  after  the  return,  and  the  work  was  not  finished 
until  516  B.  C.     Because  of  the  poverty  of  the  people,   Hag. 3:3; 
this  new  temple  fell  far  short  of  the  splendor  of  the  old. 
The  religious  leaders  were  convinced  that  prosperity  and   Ezra  5:1,  a. 
glory  could  come  to  Israel  only  if  the  temple  were  first 
restored.     This  shows  how  large  a  place  it  had  come  to   Hag.  1:9, 10. 
occupy  in  religious  thought  and  practice. 

(b}   The  priest 'was  gaining  more  and  more  importance 
in  the  life  and  worship  of  the  people.     Of  the  returning   Ezra  a:  36-39. 
exiles  a  large  proportion  consisted  of  priests  and  other 
temple  servants.     There   seems  to  have  been  develop- 
ing the  distinction  between  priests  and   Levites  which   Ezra6:i8,  ao. 
was    to  become   fixed    later.     That  the  distinction  was 
not  yet  clearly  made  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Ezra8:ao;  10:5; 

*  Mai.  3:3. 

two  titles  appear  to  be  synonymous  in  some  passages, 
just   as   they   are   in    Deuteronomy.     One    priest    had 
already  achieved  prominence  as  the  leader  of  his  breth-   zech.  3:1^9; 
ren,  and  he  appeared  side  by  side  with  the  prince  in  all   Hag.  x:i,ia; 

a:  a,  4. 

important  concerns,  and  was  superior  to   him  in  reli- 
gious affairs.     A  high  standard  was  set  up  for  the  priests  Mai. a:  5-9;  3:3. 
by  Malachi,  and  their  corruption  was  severely  denounced. 


4O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Mai.  3:8,9.  Tithes  for  the  support  of  the  priests  were  still  in  force, 

but  were  reluctantly  paid. 

Bzra3;a,  3.  (f)  Sacrifice  was  at  once  renewed  at  Jerusalem  upon 

the  return  from  exile,  if,  indeed,  it  had  ever  wholly  ceased. 
One  of  the  earliest  acts  was  the  erection  of  an  altar  of 
burnt-offering  upon  the  site  of  the  former  temple,  that 
the  regular  sacrifices  might  be  offered  to  Jehovah.  These 
sacrifices  were  probably  those  provided  for  in  Deuter- 

Mai. i : 7, 8, 13-14 ;  onomy  (cf.  §  27  (4))  and  earlier  laws.     Malachi  denounces 

Mill.  3-8. 

those  who  bring  maimed,  imperfect,  and  polluted  offer- 
ings, and  insists  upon  the  best  of  everything  as  an  offer- 
ing to  Jehovah. 

(d*)   Times  and  seasons. — These  probably  continued 

the  same  as  they  had  been  under  the  Deuteronomic  law. 

Bzra3:4. 5;          Specific  mention  is  made,  in  the  literature  that  comes 

zech.^7?2!^?;         from  these  days,  only  of  the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon,  the 

zech.  s.i  ,19.       Feast    of  Tabernacles,  the    Passover,  and  of  four   fasts 

which  had  been  observed  every  year  since  the  beginning 

of  the  exile. 

Ezras:  10,  ix.  (e)   Other  acts  of  worship.  —  (i)  Music  and  singing  are 

mentioned  in  connection  with  the  laying  of  the  founda- 

Mai.  1:14.  tion   stone  of  the   temple.     (2)  Vows  were  still    made. 

Heh.?:4-u;  3:4;  (3)  Sorcery  was  not  even  yet  wholly  uprooted.     (4)  That 

the  habit  of  prayer  was  not  discontinued  is  clear  from 

Nehemiah's  statements  concerning  himself  at  a  little  later 

time. 

§  34.  The  Priestly  Character  of  the  Prophetic  Work  of 
these  later  years  is  seen  in  — 

Hag.  1:8-10;  (a)  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  build- 

Zech.  i:i6;4:9;     .  . 

6:13-15.  ing  the  temple  as  a  prerequisite  to  the  enjoyment  of 

Jehovah's  favor.     This  is  the  main  theme  of  Haggai's 

prophecy. 

zech. 3:1-10;  (6)  The  prominence  given  to  priestly  interests  in  the 

7:1-7;'  8- 18,'  19.   utterances  of  Zechariah,  who  speaks  of  the  temple,  the 

high-priest,  fasts,  feasts,  etc. 

Mai.  1:6-14;  (c)  The  large  place  given  to  matters  pertaining  to 

Mai.X3?i-4;  worship  in  the  book  of  Malachi,  which  probably  comes 

Mai.  4-4.'  from  the  very  end  of  this  period.     The  main  interest  of 

the  author  seems  to  be  centered  in  an  effort  to  reform 

the  ritual  and  those  who  have  charge  of  it. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  41 

§  35.  The  Songs  and  Hymns  of  the  Middle  Period  are 
very  numerous.  Their  spirit  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  examples  : 

(1)  Songs  celebrating  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  PSS.  46;  48. 
as  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah. 

(2)  Songs  describing  the  wickedness  of  the  times,   PSS.  36 ;  54 ;  64. 
as  in  the  days  of  Manasseh. 

(3)  Songs   depicting   the  destruction   of  Jerusalem   Pss.8o;3i. 
and  the  going  into  captivity. 

(4)  Songs  expressing  the  sense  of   loneliness  and  PSS.  137;  a«;  69; 
wretchedness  experienced  during  the  exile. 

(5)  Songs  celebrating  the  joy  and  gladness  of  the  Pss.ia6;ns. 
return  from  exile. 

(6)  Songs  of  the  second  temple,  written  particularly  PSS.  toe ;  107. 
for  congregational  worship. 

It  is  to  be  noted  concerning  the  songs  thus  classi- 
fied- 

(a)  That  those  of  earlier  date  were  considerably 
modified  in  the  later  days  when  the  use  of  songs  in 
congregational  worship  was  more  thoroughly  established. 

(l>)  That  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  fix  exactly  the 
date  of  many  psalms  because  of  the  lack  of  historical 
indications ;  /.  e.,  references  to  historical  events. 

(c)  That  many  psalms  which  seem  to  express  indi- 
vidual experiences  and  aspirations  are  really  congrega- 
tional in  their  character;  /.  e.,  they  were  written  to  express 
the  feelings  of  a  community. 

(</)  That  a  fuller  treatment  of  this  part  of  the  ele- 
ment of  worship  will  be  presented  later  (see  chap,  xviii). 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP    IN    THE     LATER    OLD   TESTAMENT    PERIOD. 

§36.  The  Later  Old  Testament  Period  in  the  history  of  worship  is 
the  story  of  Judaism,  that  is,  the  Jewish  religion,  which  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Hebrew  religion.  The  period,  rightly  considered,  (i)  begins 
with  the  Babylonian  exile  (§  30),  for  at  that  time  were  set  in  motion 
the  great  ideas,  and  the  modifications  of  old  ideas,  which  finally  made 
up  Judaism  ;  but  (2)  the  time  in  which  the  distinct  establishment  and 
substantial  development  of  Judaism  took  place  falls  within  the  two 
centuries  of  Persian  supremacy  (538-332  B.  C.) ;  while  (3)  the  cen- 
tury and  a  half  from  332  B.  C.  to  165  B.  C.,  the  period  of  Greek 
influence,  had  for  its  great  achievement  the  final  testing  and  rounding- 
out  of  Judaism. 

See  KENT,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian  and 
Greek  Periods,  pp.  v-vii ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp. 
500  £. 

§37.  Some  of  the  Most  Striking  Characteristics  of  this 
period  are  these  : 

(i)  It  is  the  last  division  of  the  Old  Testament 
period.  Is  it  a  climax  or  an  anti-climax  ?  Is  it  a 
step  higher  in  the  development  of  the  true  religious 
conception,  or  is  it  a  step  lower  than  has  hitherto  been 
taken  ? 

C/.  Ezra  1:5.  (2)  It  is  prevailingly  priestly  in  its  character,  for  (a) 

a  king  no  longer  sits  on  Judah's  throne ;  (b)  the  prophet's 
voice  and  authority  are  now  largely  a  thing  of  the  past ; 
Zech.  3:1-7;  while  (c)  it  is  the  high-priest  who  occupies  the  place  of 
supremacy  alike  in  church  and  state.  In  Israel's  earli- 
est days  the  king  acted  as  priest ;  now  the  priest  acts  as 
king. 

(3)  It  is  distinctly  an  ecclesiastical  situation  which 
presents  itself  to  our  view  ;  in  fact,  we  are  studying  the 
history  of  a  church,  not  that  of  a  state. 

Neb.,  chap.  8.  (4)  In  view  of  all  this,  it  is  natural  enough  to  find 

that  the  great  event  which  characterized  this  period,  the 
42 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  43 

event  which  the  sacred  historians  chronicled  with  especial 
emphasis,  was  the  promulgation  of  the  Levitical  law  by 
Ezra.  With  this  we  may  compare  the  giving  of  the 
Deuteronomic  law,  in  its  relationship  to  the  middle 
period  (§28). 

§  38.  The  Situation  Culminating  with  the  Building  of 
the  Temple,  516  B.  C.,  presents  the  following,  among 
other,  elements  which  may  be  taken  as  directly  grow- 
ing out  of  the  exile  and  leading  up  to  this  later 
period  : 

1 i)  Jeremiah's  teaching  of  individualism,  which  empha-   Jer.  31  =29-34 ; 
sized  the  fact  that  each  individual  sustained  a  distinct  Deut.  24:16. 
personal  relation  to  Jehovah  in  addition  to  his  relation 

to  him  as  a  part  of  the  nation.  Each  man  is  responsible 
for  his  own  sins  and  for  those  only,  and  his  acceptance 
with  God  depends  upon  himself  alone. 

(2)  Ezekiel's  teaching  of  the  new  community,  a  new  Ezek.,  chaps.  40- 
city  in  which  no  government  will  be  needed,  for  there 

will  be  no  crime  and  no  injustice.      God  will  be  judge. 
He  will  bestow  upon   the  people  all    that   they  need. 
The  city  will  have  no  obligation  to  provide  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people.     God  will  fight  Israel's  battles,  and  Ezek.  39:1-16; 
Israel's  only  work  will  be  to  bury  the  corpses  of  the      Ezek.  5i7*  25-30. 
slain.     What,  now,  will  prince  and  people  do  ?    Engage 
in  worship,  continual  worship.     The  only  object  of  care 
will  be  the  temple  and  its  materials  ;  the  only  taxes  will 
be  church  taxes.     This  is  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  earth. 

(3)  There    is  general  recognition  of   the  idea  that  Ezek.,  chap.  18; 
Israel's  religion,  and,  indeed,  its  national  existence,  was 

not  dependent  upon  a  monarchy,  nor,  indeed,  upon  any 
particular  form  of  government. 

(4)  There  exists  a  more  general  readiness  to  accept   zech.  1:1-6; 
the  teachings  of  the  prophets,  which  at  the  time  of  their  t/joei2:28,29. 
utterance  were  unheeded  or  rejected. 

(5)  The  necessity  for  meeting  together  in  small  groups  Ezek.  8 :  i ; 
for  worship,  and  the  nature  of  the  exercises  possible  C/PS! 74':  8. 
under  the  circumstances,  viz.,  public  reading  of  scrip- 
ture and  prayer,  are  leading  to  the  organization  of  syna- 
gogues. 


44 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Bxod.  20:23— 


Ezek.,  chaps.  40- 

48; 
cf.  Isa.  51:17-20. 


C/.  Ezra  1:2-4; 
Ezra  6 :  i-ia ; 
Ezra  7 : 1126 ; 
Neb.  2 :  i-g. 


Jer.  34:  i -io. 


Hag.  2:6-9; 
Zech.  2 : 9-13. 


Zech.  6 : 9-12. 
Zech.  3:8. 


Ezra,  chap. 5; 
cf.  Neh.,  chap.  6. 


(6)  With  the  book  of  the  Covenant  (§  20),  and  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy  (§  25)  which  had  become  the  adopted 
code  of  religious  life,  and  the  more  recent  and  more  elabo- 
rate program  of  worship  suggested  by  Ezekiel  (§31),  all 
in  existence,  and  all  rendered  impossible  of  observance  by 
the  circumstances  of  the  people,  there  is  seen  to  be  a 
great  indefiniteness   and    uncertainty   in  the   situation, 
which,  while  confusing,  signified   most  clearly  that  the 
"Law"  was  not  yet  finished,  and  prepared  the  minds  of 
the  people  for  the  more  definite  and  final  formulation 
still  to  be  made. 

(7)  The  broad  and  generous  policy  of  Cyrus  and  his 
successors  on  the  Persian  throne,  a  policy  of  state  and 
religion  very  different  from  that  of  preceding  history,  as 
well  as  from  that  of  still  later  times,  made  possible  in 
the  way  of  progress  and  growth  what  otherwise  would 
have  been  impossible. 

(8)  The  higher  character  of  the  Babylonian  Jews, 
and  the  special  circumstances  of  their  environment,  as 
distinguished  from   that  of  the  Jews  who  remained  in 
Judah,   forms   an    important    factor   in    the   movement 
toward  national  exclusiveness  which  is  henceforth  to  be 
so  prominent. 

(9)  The  expectations,  publicly  announced,  of  Haggai 
and  Zechariah  that  in  the  political  upheavals  of  the  day 
(/.  <?.,  the  revolts  of  the  Babylonians  in  519  and  515  B.  C. 
against  the  Persian  rule)  deliverance  and  glory  would 
come  to  Israel ;  the  embassy  of  four  Jews  from  Babylon, 
bringing  gifts  of  silver  and  gold  which  are  made  into  a 
crown  for  Zerubbabel  (not  Joshua) ;  and  the  fact  that 
Zerubbabel  had  been  given  the  name  Branch  or  Sprout  — 
all  this  points  to  the  suggestion  that  there  were  many  who 
still  expected  a  descendant  of  David  to  sit  upon  Israel's 
throne ;  but  the  hope  was  impossible  of  realization  because 
(a)  the  whole  trend  of  events  was  toward  the  priestly  rule, 
and  (b)  perhaps  the  Persian  authorities  may  have  interfered 
to  prevent  an  act  which  would  certainly  have  led  to  treason, 
just  as  they  did  in  the  case  of  the  building  of  the  walls. 

See  CHEYNE,/<fwi&4  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile,  p.  15  ;  KENT, 
op.  cit.,  DO.  147  f. 


WORSHIP    IN     LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  45 

(10)  The  residence  in  Babylon  brought  the  Jews  into 
close  touch  with  an  elaborate  system  of  sacrifice,  the 
most  important  characteristic  of  which  was  the  propitia- 
tory idea.  This  is  significant  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
henceforward  the  greatest  possible  emphasis  will  be 

placed  upon  sacrifice  as  an  atonement,  and  upon  prayer  Lev.,  chap.  16; 
t         f        •  Neb.  i :  4-11. 

for  forgiveness. 

See  PAUL  HAUPT,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitical 
Ritual,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-8 1; 
JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  668. 

(i  i)  Because  in  Babylon  there  was  no  chance  to  offer  isa.  58:3^.; 

Ezra  8:21; 
sacrifice,  such  a  thing  being  utterly  inconceivable,  fasting  Neb.  1:4; 

came  into  great  prominence,  since  "by  denying  them-   zech. 7:3-5. 
selves  their  ordinary  food  they  gave  expression  to  the 
intensity  of  their  feelings,  and  at  the  same  time  laid 
before  Jehovah  a  gift  which  could  be  presented  at  any 
time  and  at  any  place." 

See  KENT,  op.  cit.,  p.  43 ;  BENZINGER,  article  "Fasting,"  §  6,  in 
Encyclopedia  Biblica;  STANTON,  article  "Fasting,"  §§  \b  and  3,  in 
HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  9-11. 

(12)  It  was,  likewise,  because  in  Babylon  the  great  Bzek.  20: 12-34. 
feast  days  could  not  be  properly  or  regularly  observed, 

that  greater  and  greater  attention  was  given  to  the 
observance  of  the  sabbath,  for  this  could  be  done  any- 
where. The  nature  of  the  observance  was  probably 
much  influenced  by  the  customs  in  vogue  in  Babylon. 

(13)  The  removal  to  another  land,  and  residence  in 
that  land,  took  away  the  narrow  conception  of  a  national 
god  which  had  always  existed  among  the  masses;  and 
now  the  time  has  come  when  first  the  people  as  such 

will  accept  the  great  and   fundamental   doctrine  of  one  isa. 44:6. 
god,  i.  f.,  monotheism.     But  Jehovah,  in  becoming   the  isa.  40:28. 
creator  of  the  world,  and  the  ruler  of  the  universe,  will 
not  seem  to  be  in  as  close  touch  as  formerly  with  his 
people.     He  will  be  holy,  in  the  sense  of  being  sepa- 
rated.    He  will  be  higher  and  more  majestic ;  less  fami-  153.40:12-17. 
liar  and  more  dignified,  because  greater. 

See  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (=  Hibbert 
Lectures,  1892),  pp.  228,  268  f.;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  175  f.;  DAVIDSON,  article  "  God,"  §IV,  (4),  in  HASTINGS' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


46  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(14)  According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  individual 
Israelites  meet  these  new  and  strange  conditions  they 

Neh.  13 : 15-28.  will  divide  themselves  into  two  classes:  (a)  those  who 
break  away  from  their  old  religion  because  of  inability  to 
adopt  a  larger  faith  and  a  broader  conception  of  God,  or 
because  of  personal  advantage  gained  by  giving  up  the 

Mai. 3:16-18.  old;  and  (<$)  those  who,  in  spite  of  calamity  and  mis- 
apprehension, maintain  themselves  steadfast  and  true. 
This  means  a  purging  of  the  people,  the  growing 
stronger  of  those  who  are  strong,  and  the  weeding  out  of 
those  who  are  weak. 

See  KENT,  op.  cit.,  pp.  221  f.;  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  291  ff. 

Hag.  2:3;  (15)  When    it   was   realized    quite   clearly  that    the 

Ezra  3: 12,  13.  1,1^11 

promises  of  the  prophets  were  not  to  be  fulfilled  at  the 

time  of  the  return  from  exile,  there  was  disappointment 
Mai.  2:17.  and  despair  on  every  side.     Some  became  indifferent  to 

isa.  59:9-15.          God,  for  they  put  on  him  the  blame  for  their  disappoint- 
ment.    Others,  the  more  devout,  took  the  blame  upon 
themselves.     With  full  faith  in  God's  ability  to  do  the 
things  which  he  had  promised,  they  reasoned  in  their 
hearts  that  this  glorious  future  must  have  failed  of  reali- 
zation because  of  Israel's  sin ;  yes,  because  of  their  own 
unworthiness   this   glory  was  being  postponed.     They 
Cf.  the  prophet  reasoned  further:  We,  who  have  sinned  and  have  thus 
isa^alfa^as.111   made  it  impossible  for  the  great  day  of  deliverance  to  be 
ushered  in  —  we  must  change  our  ways ;  we  must  become 
c/.  PS.  15.  more  holy ;  we  must  increase  our  piety ;  our  lives  must 

be  of  such  purity  that  God  will  be  compelled  to  keep  his 
promises.     It  was  this  situation  and  this  interpretation 
of  it  that  prepared  the  way  for  "the  legalism  and  the 
salvation  by  works  of  the  later  Judaism." 
See  CORNILL,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  155-9. 

§  39.  A  Great  Reaction  Came  after  the  Building  of  the 
Temple  in  516  B.C.,  which  lasted  nearly  three-quarters  of 
a  century.  Concerning  this  it  will  be  noted  — 

Weh.  5:1-13;  (i)  That,  in  all  probability,  only  a  few  of  the  Baby- 

MaLa-xo.  Ionian  Jews  had  yet  returned;1  the  weak,  narrow,  and 

1  The  question  of  dates,  always  a  more  or  less  difficult  one,  is  in  this  case  especially 
difficult.  Cf.  KENT,  op.  cit.,  pp.  196  ff.;  H.  E.  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Cambridge 
Bible),  pp.  xxxviii-xlv,  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  36-81 ;  C.  C.  TORREY,  The  Composition 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  4^ 

selfish  elements  were  in  control ;  the  rulers  were  greedy 
of  gain,  oppressing  the  poor. 

(2)  There  was  in  the  community  a  strong  tendency 
toward  skepticism.     The  so-called  "scorners"  were  in 
the  majority,  and  included  in  their  number  not  only  rulers 
but  priests,  and  these  openly  expressed  doubts  as  to  all 
the  religious  practices  and  opinions  of  the  times,  e.  g., 

(a)  weariness  of   the  routine  of  sacrifice;  (£)  what  real  Mai.  1:13. 
benefit  comes  from  serving  God?  (c)  why  not  just  as  Mai. 3 : 14, 15. 
well  worship  the  heathen  gods  ?  (d}  what  difference  does  Mai.  2:17. 
it  make  whether  a  man  does  right  or  wrong  ? 

(3)  Under  these  circumstances  the  condition  of  wor- 
ship was  greatly  degraded.     This  was  seen  in  — 

(a)  The  complaint  of  the  priests  as  to  the  weariness  Mai.  1:13. 
of  their  occupation. 

(b)  The  low  character  of  the   high-priests,  who  were  Keh.  13:4-9,38. 
among  the  most  guilty. 

(c)  The  readiness  of  the  people  to  cheat  Jehovah  in   Mai.  1:6-14. 
their  sacrifices. 

(</)  The  attitude  of  the  priests  in  general  toward  the  Mai.  1:8;  2=8,9. 
entire  service,  including  the  sacrifice,  so  that  the  whole 
ceremonial  came  into  contempt. 

(e)  The  failure  of   the  people   to    pay  their   tithes,  Mai.  3:8-12. 
so   that   the   support   of   the   entire   system  was  about 
to  fail. 

(/)  The  marriage  of  the  priests  into  families  of  outside  Neh.  13:23-28; 

Mai.  2 : 10-16. 

nations  who  served  other  gods. 

(4)  But  there  still  remained  the  company  of  "  faithful   Mai.  3:16-18; 
ones,"  who  feared  Jehovah,  and  were  called  "the  just,"      im:6;  1x3:7. 
"the  poor  and  needy"  (cf.  above,  §38,  (14),  (15))- 

§  40.  Nehemiah's  Coining  (44  B.  C.)  Was  a  Great  Event 
in  the  history  of  Judaism. 

(i)  His  work  as  a  reformer  and  upbuilder  of  Jerusa-  Neh.  1:1-7:5; 
i  i    j   j  12:27-43. 

lem  included — 

(a)  The  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  as  a  pro-   weh.  2:12— 6:15. 
tection  against  attack,  and  as  a  means  of  separating  the 
Jews  from  their  heathen  neighbors. 

and  Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  pp.  51-65;  W.  H.  KOSTERS  AND  T.  K. 
CHEYNE,  article  "Ezra"  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  L.  W.  BATTEN,  article  "Nehe- 
miah"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


48  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Neb..  chap,  xi.  (fy  The  repopulating  of   Jerusalem   by  bringing  in 

Jews  from  the  surrounding  country  to  dwell  there. 
NCh  '3:*ra8'  (?)  The  prohibition  of  marriages  with  heathen  peoples 

and  the  driving  out  of  all  foreigners  from  the  Jewish 

community, 
weh.,  chap.  5.  (</)   Tne  restoration  to  its  original   owners   of   all 

property  that  had  been  acquired  by  mortgages  and  usury, 

and  the  remission  of  all  interest, 
ifeh.  i3-.i5-*».  (g)    The  institution  of  a  stricter  observance  of  the 

sabbath,  which  had  heretofore  been  freely  violated. 

Neh.  13:10-13;  (2)  But  in  addition  to  all  this  he  turned  his  attention 

Neb.  10:32-39.  »  ' 

to  the  temple  and  its  service.  Finding  that  this  was 
being  neglected  because  the  Levites  were  under  the 
necessity  of  working  in  the  fields  for  their  support,  he 
took  steps  to  secure  the  regular  payment  of  the  tithes, 
and  appointed  faithful  officials  to  distribute  them  to  the 
Levites.  He  also  made  regulations  for  the  proper 
observance  of  sacrifices,  offerings,  and  feasts. 

§41.  The  Work  of  Ezra,  in  all  probability,  followed 
that  of  Nehemiah,  the  latter  having  by  his  masterful  skill 
prepared  the  way  (cf.  §40).  The  steps  in  his  eventful 
career  may  be  summarily  classified  as  follows : 

Ezra  7: 1-9;  (i)  The  journey  took  place  in  the  seventh  year  of 

Artaxerxes,  occupied  a  period  of  four  months,  and  was 
made  without  military  escort,  since  Ezra  refused  to 
manifest  distrust  in  Jehovah's  protection  by  asking  the 
aid  of  Artaxerxes. 

Ezra 7: 15-23;  (2)  The  gifts  said  to  have  been  offered  by  Artaxerxes 

8:2434. 

and  his  princes  for  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  and  its  service, 

together  with  the  requisition  made  by  the  king  upon  the 
governors  of  the  western  provinces  and  the  free-will  offer- 
ings of  the  Babylonian  Jews  themselves,  were  of  great 
value,  and  were  faithfully  guarded  and  handed  over  to 
the  temple  officials. 

Bzr*7:i4-27.  (3)  The   immediate  purpose  was  to  establish    more 

securely  and  develop  more  elaborately  the  facilities  for 
worship  in  the  temple.  Matters  relating  to  the  service 
and  to  the  temple  seem  to  have  occupied  the  entire 
time  and  attention  of  the  reformers  for  a  couple  of 
months  after  their  arrival. 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  49 

§42.  The  Formal  Adoption  of  the  Law  took  place  at  Neh.,  chaps, 
a  public  assembly  of  all  the  people.  The  method  of 
procedure  was  in  general  the  same  as  that  used  when  the 
Deuteronomic  law  was  publicly  adopted  by  the  nation 
(see  §  25).  The  law  was  first  read  aloud  in  the  hearing  of 
the  people.  This  produced  a  sense  of  sin  and  short- 
coming on  the  part  of  all,  and  was  followed  by  public  con- 
fession. After  this  a  solemn  covenant  was  entered  into 
by  all  the  people  to  observe  the  requirements  of  the  new 
law,  and  this  covenant  was  signed  by  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  viz.,  the  princes,  priests,  and  Levites. 

§  43.  The  Law  as  Thus  Proclaimed  and  Accepted— 

(1)  Is  described  in  Nehemiah  as  — 

(a)  Prohibiting     marriages    with    the    surrounding  Neh.  10: 30. 
heathen. 

(b)  Providing  for  a  strict  observance  of  the  sabbaths  Neh.  10: 31. 
and  holy  days. 

(f)  Enforcing  the  observance  of  the  sabbatical  year,  Neh.  10:  31. 
with  the  accompanying  remission  of  all  debts. 

(d)  Imposing  an  annual  tax  of  one-third  of  a  shekel  Neh.  10:32,33. 
per  capita  for  the  support  of  the  services  of  the  temple, 
including  the  offerings. 

(e)  Arranging  for  the  wood  to  be  furnished  for  the  Neh.  10:34. 
burnt-offerings  at  stated  intervals. 

(/)  Enjoining  the  bringing  of  all  first-fruits  and  first-  Neh.  10: 35-37. 
lings  to  the  priests  at  the  temple. 

(g)  Requiring  that  the  people   give    tithes   to  the  Neh.  10:38. 
Levites  in  the  various  cities,  and  that  the  Levites  bring  a 

tithe  of  these  tithes  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

(K)  Calling  for  a  hearty  support  of  the  temple  and  Neh.  10:39- 
constant  faithfulness  to  it. 

(2)  Contains  regulations  unknown  to  Deuteronomy,  Neh.  10:316,- 
e.  g.,  the  requirement  that  the  land  lie  fallow  every  sab-      is; 
batical  year  ;  the  tax  of  one-third  of  a  shekel  for  the  tern-  cf.  Deut.  14': 

33-39 ;  26 :  13-15. 

pie  services ;  the  arrangement  for  the  provision  of 
fire-wood  ;  and  the  law  concerning  tithes,  which  departs 
widely  from  the  Deuteronomic  law. 

(3)  Was  substantially  the  body  of  regulations  found 
in  Exod.,  chaps.  25-31  ;  34  :  29 — 40  :  38 ;  Leviticus,  and 
Numbers ;  in  other  words,  the  so-called  Levitical  code. 


50  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See  KENT,  op.  cit.,  p.  212;  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  72  f.;  MONTE- 

FIORE,  Op.  Clt.,  pp.  315  ff.;   J.  ESTLIN   CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD 

BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  137-41 ;  WELLHAUSEN, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  404-10. 

§44.    The  Significance  of  This  Important  Event  lies  in 
the  following  points : 

c/.Nch.  10:30, 31          (i)  The  immediate  connection  of  these  new  regula- 
with  13 : 15-24 ; 
Ezra 9: i.  tions  with  the  times.     They  grew  out  of  the  effort  to 

improve  the  existing  moral  and  religious  condition  of 
the  people,  and  they  contain  the  principles  that  formed 
the  basis  of  the  work  of  reform. 

(2)  The  fact  that,  although  some  additions  remained 
still  to  be  made  to  this  code,  it  was  substantially  complete. 

(3)  The  adoption  and  incorporation  into  this  code 
of  the  important  teachings  of  the  prophets.    It  presented 
in  the  concrete  and  tangible  form  of  specific  precepts 
the  great    general    truths  that   the    prophets  had  long 
endeavored  to  inculcate.     It  presented  truth  and  duty 
objectively,  and  thus  met  with  a  greater  immediate  suc- 
cess than  the  prophets'  work  had  ever  achieved. 

C/.,#.^.,Lev.i6:i         (4)  The  overwhelming  preponderance  of  material  in 
24:9-  '25:11—  the  code  relating  to  service  or  worship. 

Lev.  '4 •  10-32 ;  (5)  The  place  occupied  in  it  by  sacrifice,  and  the 

Bxoi.1*)^-^.      emphasis  (see  §38,  (10))  placed  upon  the  idea  of  pro- 
pitiation and  forgiveness. 

Weh.  10:37, 38.  (6)  The  great  advance  made  by  the  priests  and  Levites; 

their  support  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  fitful  charity,  as  it 
was  under  the  Deuteronomic  law,  but  is  made  a  standing 
obligation  upon  the  people,  over  the  discharge  of  which 
the  priests  and  Levites  themselves  are  given  control. 

§45.    Another  Important  Headquarters  for  Worship,  the 
Samaritan  Temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,   grew  out  of  this 

2  Kings  17:6,  24-  priestly  reformation.  The  Samaritans  were  a  mixed  race, 
41, cf. 25.  ir,  12.  ^oge  ancestors  were  the  poorer  Israelites  left  behind 
after  the  deportation  of  the  more  influential  classes  to 
Assyria  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Samaria,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian colonists  who  were  brought  to  Israel  in  place  of 
the  deported  captives.  Their  religion  was  thus  naturally 
a  corrupt  mixture  of  Israelitish  and  Babylonian  ideas  and 
practices.  They  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  Josiah's 
reformation,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  regarding  Jerusalem 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  5! 

as  the  only  lawful  place  of  worship.     Hence,  when  the  Ezra,  chap.  4. 
effort  to  rebuild  the  temple  was  begun,  the  Samaritans 
sought  to  have  a  part  in  the  work  ;  but,  being  denied  this 
privilege  by  the  stricter  Jews,  they  seem  to  have  used 
their  influence  to  obstruct  the  work.     Nehemiah's  atti-  Neh.  a-i8-ao. 
tude  toward  them  was  one  of  uncompromising  opposition. 
They,  for  their  part,  opposed  and  hindered  him  greatly  Neh.  4: 1-23;  6  i- 
in  his  work  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.     The  Keh'  13:a8 
climax  of  Nehemiah's  hostility  to  them  was  reached  when 
he  expelled  the  grandson  of  the  high-priest  from  Jerusa- 
lem because  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat, 
one  of  the  Samaritan  princes.     The  new  law,  adopted 
when  feeling  was  at  such  a  pitch,  of  course  gave  the 
Samaritans  no  part  in  the  worship  at  Jerusalem.    Conse- 
quently they  withdrew  and  built  a  temple  for  themselves 
on  Mount  Gerizim.     In  all  probability  many  Jews  who 
had   contracted    heathen    marriages   went   over   to   the 
Samaritan  community,  to  which   they  were   so  closely 
bound  by  family  ties,  and  thus  the  community  of  the 
faithful  was  freed  from  many  troublesome  elements. 

See  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  351  f.;  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  25-35  5 
WELLHAUSEN,  op.  cit.,  p.  498;  GUTHE,  article  "Israel,"  §65,  in 

Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

• 

§46.  The  Last  Century  of  Persian  Rule  (425-332) 
witnessed  — 

(j)  The  return  of  many  Jews  from  the  lands  in  which 
they  had  been  scattered ;  for  this  return,  like  the  first 
entrance  into  Canaan,  was  very  gradual. 

(2)  The  growing  influence  of  those  who  thus  returned 
as  over  against  that  of  those  who  had  remained. 

(3)  Great  opportunity  at  first  for  free  growth  and  expan- 
sion because  of  the  weakness  of  the  government  of  Persia. 

(4)  Serious  calamity,  later,  because  of   the  contest 
between  Egypt  and  Persia,  a  contest  in  which  the  Jews 
were  compelled  to  take  part,  and  in  which  they  suffered 

as  perhaps  never  before  in  their  history.     From  psalms  Pss.  74;  79. 
of  this  period  we  learn  that  the  enemy  entered  Jerusalem 
and    the    temple    itself,   in    which    they   set   up    their 
heathen  standards  and  committed  ruthless  acts  of  van- 
dalism, even  setting  the  temple  on   fire.     Not  satisfied 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Bxod.  28  : 1-39  ; 
Lev.  16:1-3,  17. 


Numb.  18 : 1-7. 


with  this,  they  burned  all  the  synagogues  of  the  land 
and  slaughtered  the  people  mercilessly,  so  that  blood 
ran  like  water  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem. 

See  EWALD,  History  of  Israel,  Vol.  V,  pp.  165-206;  CHEYNE, 
Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  pp.  357-63  ;  W.  EMORY  BARNES, 
article  "History  of  Israel,"  §  10,  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible;  GUTHE,  article  "Israel,"  §66,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica; 
KENT,  op.  fit.,  pp.  224-8. 

§  47.  The  Religio-Political  Organization  of  Judaism, 
which  had  thus  become  crystallized,  considered  as  to  its 
outer  form,  was  a  hierarchy,  a  government  by  priests ;  for — 

(1)  The  chief   ruler  was  the  high-priest,  who   had 
despotic  authority  over  the  people,  was  robed  in  the 
royal  purple,  and  alone  represented  the  people  before 
Jehovah  in  the  holy  of  holies. 

(2)  The  ruling  aristocracy  was  made  up  of  priests, 
many  of  them  related  to  the  high-priest. 

(3)  The  servants  of   the  priests  and  the  sanctuary 
were  the  Levites. 

(4)  The  religious  and  civil  functions  are  performed 
by  one  class,  the  priests.     There  is  now  no  nation ;  it  is  a 
church. 

(5)  The  scribes  come   forward    in   response    to   the 
need  of  the  times.     Since   the  regulations  concerning 
life  and  worship  were  now  fixed  and  written  down,  there 
arose  a  demand  for  copies  of  the  written  law  for  the  use 
of  synagogues  and  individuals.     The  scribes  who  pre- 
pared these  copies,  being  naturally  better  educated  than 
the  great  majority  of  the  people  and  spending  most  of 
their  time  in  the  study  of  the  law,  soon  came  to  be  looked 
to  as  peculiarly  well-fitted  to  interpret  the  law  to  those 
less  conversant  with  it.a 

See  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  392-6. 

§  48.  The  Place  and  Acts  of  Worship  are  Adjusted  to 
the  New  Situation. 

(i)  The  temple  more  and  more  came  to  be  the  center 
of  the  whole  religious  system.  The  thought  of  it  as  the 
place  where  Jehovah  especially  manifested  his  presence 
gave  it  a  peculiar  sanctity,  so  that  none  but  the  holy 

2  The  scope  of  the  activity  of  the  scribes  is  well  set  forth  in  a  saying  ascribed  to 
Simon  the  Just  (300-290  B.  C.) :  "Our  fathers  have  taught  us  three  things,  to  be  cau- 
tious in  judging,  to  train  many  scholars,  and  to  set  a  fence  about  the  Law.'' 


Ezra  7:6, 10-12, 
3i ; 

Eccles.  12:11. 


Pss.  76:1,2 
79:i. 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  53 

people  might  enter  its  precincts.  The  worst  crime  of 
which  an  enemy  could  be  capable  was  desecration  of  the 
temple.  But,  while  emphasis  was  thus  laid  upon  the 
temple,  there  was  growing  up  alongside  of  it  the  synagogue  PS.  74:8. 
with  a  function  of  a  different  kind.  These  were  organized 
wherever  there  were  a  few  Jews  settled  who  wished  to 
study  the  law.  They  especially  supplied  the  religious 
needs  of  the  many  Jews  scattered  in  many  lands  who 
were  unable  to  make  frequent  visits  to  Jerusalem  in 
order  to  participate  in  the  splendid  worship  of  the  tem- 
ple. While  the  temple  services  centered  about  sacrifices 
and  offerings,  the  service  of  the  synagogue  centered  in 
the  reading  and  interpretation  of  the  law. 
See  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  390  f. 

(2)  Sacrifice  now  took  on  more  and  more  a  propitia-   Lev.6:a4— 7:9; 

16 : 1-34 ; 

tory  character,  being  looked  upon  chiefly  as  atonement  Numb.,  chaps,  as ; 

for  sin.     The  most  minute  regulations  were  made  as  to 

the  details  of  every  sacrifice,  the  manner  in  which  the 

offering  must  be  laid  upon  the  altar,  the  disposition  to 

be  made  of  the  fat  and  the  blood,  the  garments  to  be 

worn  by  the  officiating  priest,  etc.     It  seems  as  though 

the  temple  services  must  have  been  a  constant  succession 

of  sacrifices. 

(3)  Times  and  seasons  received  more  attention  than   Lev.  19:3; 
ever  before.     The  sabbath  was  particularly  insisted  upon 

as  a  sign  of  the  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  his 
people.  The  penalty  for  performing  any  work  on  the 
sabbath  was  death. 

(4)  The  sabbatical  year  was  now  made  wider  in  scope,  Lev.  35:  1-7. 
so  as  to  include  the  land  itself  which  was  to  be  allowed 

to  lie  fallow.  Furthermore,  every  fifty  years  an  addi- 
tional year  of  jubilee  was  to  be  celebrated,  thus  making  Lev.  35:8-55. 
two  sabbatical  years  in  succession.  At  this  time  all 
Hebrew  slaves  were  to  be  released,  and  all  land  bought 
during  the  preceding  forty-nine  years  was  to  revert  to 
its  original  owners. 

(5)  The  feasts  provided   for  were  the  Passover  and  Lev.  33:4-8, 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  Numb.a8:nff., 

ofi  ff    • 

New  Moon,  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  New  Year's  Feast,  Lev.  23':  15  ff. ; 
and  the  Day  of  Atonement.    They  were  all  definitely  dated  Lev.,        '' 


54  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

by  month  and  day,  and  thus  were  still  farther  removed 
from  their  agricultural  origin.  The  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles was  now  celebrated  in  remembrance  of  the  fact  that 
the  Israelites  dwelt  in  tents  during  their  journey  in  the 
wilderness.  There  was  little  difference  in  the  manner  of 
celebrating  the  various  feasts  —  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  them  all  is  the  endless  sacrifices  that  accom- 
panied them.  They  were  all  to  a  large  extent  of  an  expia- 
tory nature  ;  nevertheless  it  was  felt  necessary  to  devote 
one  day  per  year  to  the  special  work  of  expiation,  viz., 
the  Day  of  Atonement. 

(6)  The  public  fasts  which  had  been  observed  during 

the  exile  in  commemoration  of  the  exile  and   of  the 

disasters  connected  with  it  were  not  incorporated  into 

the  new  law,  but  seem  to  have  come  to  an  end  in  Zecha- 

riah's  time.    That  fasting  in  general  was  highly  esteemed 

as  a  means  of  propitiating  Jehovah,  and  frequently  prac- 

Lev.  23:33;  ticed  when  occasion  seemed  to  demand  it,  is  clear  in  view 

joeu-A9; 7>         of  the  place  given  to  it  in  the  regulations  for  the  Day  of 

Heh.'i'^V  i.       Atonement,  and  the  references  to  it  in  Joel  and  Nehemiah. 

Ezra,  chap.  9;  (7)  Other  acts  of  worship.  —  Constant  recourse  was 

a:  V;  5~ig;          had   to  prayer  on   the  part  of  pious  Jews.     The  chief 

i3?aa.4' '         '  objects  of  prayer  seem  to  have  been  deliverance  from 

dangers,  help  in  trouble,  and   forgiveness  of  sin  with 

resulting  bestowal  of  blessings. 

Heh.  7:1;  11=23;  That  singing  and  music  occupied    a  large  place  in 

45-47-  worship  is  clear  from  the  allusions  to  the  singers  in  con- 

nection with  the  dedicatory  exercises  held  when  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  was  completed,  and  from  the  large  number 
of  psalms  that  come  from  this  period  (see  §  50). 

Lev.  jg: 26, 31;  Soothsaying  and  magic  seem  to  have  been  still   prac- 

ticed, but  were  prohibited  by  the  law,  as  was  also  necro- 
mancy. 

Lev'2ail8>3I'a3;          Vows  were  recognized  and  provided  for  by  the  law. 

PS.  84:1,  a.  §49-  The   Full   Significance   of  This   New  Regime  is 

.  hard  to  grasp.    The  comfort  afforded  by  it  to  the  people 

cannot  be  questioned.    This  strange  system,  which  seems 

to  us,  in  our  love  of  freedom,  so  distasteful,  was,  after 

all,  the  highest  result  yet  achieved  in  the  development 

of  Israel's  religion.      It  was  based  upon  the  doctrines 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  55 

of  the  prophet-priests,  viz.,  individualism  and  solidarity. 

Its  keynote  was  monotheism.     Its  God  was  a  God  whose  Lev.  19=1-4; 

20:  26  ;  22:  15, 

supreme  attribute  was  holiness,  and  who  expected  in  16,31-33. 
every  individual  of  the  sacred  community  a  holiness  like 
his  own.  The  underlying  thought  was  the  overwhelm- 
ing sense  of  sin.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  the  preaching 
of  the  prophets  through  all  the  centuries  has  found  its 
place  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  prayers  are  pgg.  106:6-47; 
prayers  of  confession.  God  has  grown  greater,  and  man  I3°' 
more  humble  in  the  sight  of  God.  God  is  the  God  of 
the  whole  world.  Israel  is  a  company  of  individuals  in 
a  sacred  community.  Every  act  of  life  must  be  holy. 
The  religious  feeling  is  deeper  than  ever  before  and 
more  universal.  Men  are  anxious.  The  people,  bur- 
dened as  they  are  with  their  anxiety,  smitten  as  they 
are  in  their  consciousness  of  sin,  humbled  by  their 
ideal  of  God,  take  upon  themselves  the  severest  yoke 
ever  placed  by  religion  upon  the  neck  of  man.  A  serv- 
ice worthy  of  this  supreme  God  must  be  regulated  in  its 
most  minute  details.  The  service  everywhere  presents 
the  thought  of  sin.  Sacrifice  is  now  the  great  act,  and 
is  no  longer  accompanied  by  gladness  and  joy.  It  rep-  Lev.  4:1— 6:7. 
resents  purification  from  sin.  It  is  "  the  chief  symbol, 
and  the  great  mystery  of  their  faith."  To  be  holy  one  Lev.,  chap.  15; 
must  wash  ;  one  must  touch  no  unclean  thing;  one  must  E*o<i.  31  MS"?. 
not  eat  what  is  unclean  ;  one  must  observe  the  sabbath, 
the  day  of  God ;  and  all  these  acts  of  worship  cultivated 
the  spirit  of  exclusiveness.  Then  followed  that  haughty 
spirit.  "Man  who  would  go  up  to  the  hill  of  Jehovah  Lev. ax:  1-44. 
must  now  be  the  one  who  has  not  eaten  shellfish  or 
pork,  nor  opened  his  shop  on  the  sabbath,  nor  touched 
a  dead  body,  nor  used  a  spoon  handed  him  by  a  gentile 
without  washing  it."  We  know  the  outcome  of  all  this, 
as  it  is  shown  us  in  the  New  Testament,  but  "it  kept  the 
people  separate  from  the  world  and  constant  to  their 
faith,  and  made  them  endure  the  greatest  temptations 
and  the  severest  persecutions,  and  so  enabled  them  to 
preserve  the  precious  treasure  committed  to  them  until 
the  time  should  come  when  the  world  was  to  receive  it 
from  their  hands." 


56  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  73-81;  KENT,  op.  fit.,  pp.  213!., 
249  ff.;  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  465-552 ;  WELLHAUSEN,  op.  cit., 
P-  497- 

§  50.  The  Psalms  of  the  Second  Temple  are  now  Written, 
and  one  fails  to  see  the  deeper  meaning  of  all  this  if  he 
forgets  that  in  this  period  the  greatest  number  of  the 

PBS.  118;  MI  ;  67.  psalms  were  written.  The  old  prophetic  ideas,  which  the 
people  in  the  times  of  the  prophet  had  refused  to  accept, 
are  now  a  part  of  the  people's  creed  and  are  sung  by 

PSS.  95546.  them  with  joyous  hearts  in  the  congregation.     Sacred 

PSS. MS ;  138;  145;  song  becomes  preeminently  an  act  of  worship.  The 
worship  of  Jehovah  in  this  act  is  as  joyous  and  as  delight- 
ful as  it  may  be  sad  and  grewsome  in  the  act  of  sacrifice. 

PSS.  143:10;  139;  In  these  very  days,  when  such  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
letter  of  the  law,  the  service  of  song  teaches  that  to  obey 
Jehovah  and  to  trust  in  him,  to  surrender  one's  self 
absolutely  to  him,  is  the  end  of  all  religion.  Whatever 
may  be  the  experience  of  life,  it  finds  expression  in  these 
psalms  ;  whether  it  be  "  penitence,  intellectual  perplexity, 

PSS.  xoa;  91;  130;  domestic   sorrow, -feebleness,    loneliness,    the    approach 
PM.  no:  isO:  in.      ,    ,      , 

of  death,  the  excitement  of  great  events,  the  agony  of 

persecution,  or  the  quiet  contemplation  of  nature." 
For  each  experience  there  is  expression,  and  the  heart- 
utterances  which  formed  a  part  of  the  worship  of  this 
period,  sung,  to  be  sure,  in  the  midst  of  the  bleating  of  the 
lambs  which  are  being  slaughtered  for  the  sacrifice,  have 
proven  to  be  the  most  satisfying  utterances  for  the  soul, 
in  its  deepest  communion  with  God,  which  have  ever 
reached  the  heart  of  man.  The  ritual  may  have  been 
narrow,  but  the  heart  of  every  Jew  was  free.  He  was 
restrained  outwardly,  but  no  such  restraint  hindered  him 
in  the  working  of  his  mind  and  heart.  Here  was  con- 
tradiction, to  be  sure,  but  contradiction  no  greater  than 
is  found  in  the  tendency  to  substitute  the  synagogue  for 
the  temple,  which  now  exhibits  itself  in  spite  of  the 
exclusiveness  that  was  the  end  and  the  result  of  the 
Levitical  system. 

§51.  The  Greek  Period  of  Influence,  332-165  B.  C.,  added  nothing 
essential  to  the  content  or  form  of  service.  It  furnished  the  test  of 
Judaism  for  which  the  work  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  had  been  an  uncon- 
scious preparation.  In  the  crisis  through  which  the  true  religion  was 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  57 

to  pass  the  form  given  to  it  by  these  men  was  of  inestimable  value. 
In  the  words  of  Cornill  :2 

That  the  development  of  Judaism  took  this  special  direction  was  a  neces- 
sity of  the  history  of  religion. 

For  the  heaviest  struggle  of  Judaism  still  awaited  it ;  the  struggle  against 
Hellenism.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  after  Ezra,  Alexander  the 
Great  destroyed  the  Persian  empire  and  made  the  Greeks  the  sovereign  peo- 
ple of  the  eastern  world.  Through  this  a  profound  transformation  was  begun, 
which  spread  with  startling  rapidity  and  irresistible  might,  and  led  finally  to 
the  denationalizing  of  the  East.  That  which  the  Assyrian  had  undertaken 
by  brute  force  the  Hellenes  surmounted  by  the  superior  power  of  mind  and 
culture.  Greece  destroyed  the  nationalities  of  the  East  by  amalgamating 
them  with  itself  and  conquering  them  inwardly.  Only  one  eastern  nation 
withstood  the  process  of  dissolution,  yea,  more,  absorbed  into  itself  the  good 
of  Hellenism,  and  thus  enriched  and  strengthened  its  own  existence  ;  and  that 
was  the  Jewish.  If  it  were  able  to  do  this,  it  was  because  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  had  rendered  it  hard  as  steel  and  strong  as  iron.  In  this  impenetrable 
armor  it  was  insured  against  all  attacks,  and  thus  saved  religion  against 
Hellenism.  And,  therefore,  it  behooves  us  to  bless  the  prickly  rind  to  which 
alone  we  owe  it  that  the  noble  core  remained  preserved. 

With  this  we  may  close  our  rapid  survey  of  the  history  of  the 
development  of  Israel's  worship.  In  the  light  of  this  survey  we 
shall  next  consider  the  more  important  special  divisions  included 
in  it,  viz.,  the  laws,  the  histories,  and  the  psalms. 

•Op.  dt.,  pp.  i62f. 


PAET  THIED 


COMPARATIVE     STUDY    OF    THE    LAWS    AND    USAGES 

OF    WORSHIP 

V.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PRIEST. 
VI.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PLACE  OF  WORSHIP. 
VII.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  SACRIFICE. 
VIII.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  FEASTS. 
IX.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  SABBATH. 
X.  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN. 

XL  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  AND  RELATED  FORMS 
OF  WORSHIP. 


•CHAPTER   V. 

THE  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PRIEST,  CONSIDERED  COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§  52.  To  Speak  of  the  History  of  Worship,  as  It  is  Presented  in  the 
Old  Testament,  is  to  take  for  granted  (i)  that  there  were  periods,  (2) 
that  these  periods  differed  from  each  other  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
and  (3)  that  there  was  either  growth  or  decay,  or  perhaps  both.  The 
brief  survey,  just  finished,  distinguished  three  such  periods,  each  with 
its  peculiar  characteristics,  and  presented  what  seemed  to  be  a  striking 
case  of  development,  /.  <?.,  growth  from  a  lower  and  less  complicated 
form  of  worship  to  one  higher  and  more  complicated.  These  periods 
were  called  early,  middle,  and  later. 

§  53.  Each  Period  Had  a  Lawbook  or  Code  of  Legislation  Peculiar  to 
Itself,  viz.:  (i)  the  Covenant  Code  (§14,  (3))  for  the  early  period, 
(2)  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (§27)  for  the  middle  period,  and  (3)  the 
Levitical  Code  (§43)  for  the  later  period.  Injunctions  concerning 
nearly  every  topic  relating  to  worship  are  found  in  each  of  these  codes. 
These  injunctions  are  sometimes  couched  in  language  almost  the  same ; 
in  other  cases  there  are  to  be  noted  differences  (additions  or  varia- 
tions) of  an  important  character  ;  in  still  other  cases  they  are  quite 
contradictory.  These  differences,  it  is  clear,  exist  because  through 
succeeding  centuries  the  people  (a)  changed  their  place  of  abode, 
e.  g.,  from  the  desert  to  Canaan,  from  Canaan  to  Babylon,  and  back 
again  ;  (b]  changed  also  their  form  of  life,  passing  from  the  nomadic  to 
the  agricultural,  and  from  the  agricultural  to  the  more  centralized  or  city 
life  ;  (c)  changed  their  form  of  government,  passing  from  a  tribal  form 
to  the  monarchical,  and  from  that  to  a  theocratic  or  hierarchical  form; 
(d}  came  into  contact  with  different  nations,  from  whom  much  was 
learned,  e.  g.,  the  Canaanites,  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  the 
Persians,  and  the  Greeks ;  (<?)  were  given  great  leaders,  lawgivers,  kings, 
and  prophets,  through  whom,  from  time  to  time,  new  and  better  ideas 
of  God  and  worship  were  taught. 

Now,  the  different  codes  named  above,  as  they  severally  appear  and 
are  adopted  by  the  nation,  reflect  the  onward  and  upward  movement 
of  the  people  toward  the  great  goal  of  the  nation's  history,  the  time 
when  Jesus  Christ  shall  come  and  teach  as  men  had  never  taught 

61 


62  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

before.  These  codes,  then,  are  different  expressions  of  the  usage  and 
law  of  successive  epochs.  To  understand  any  special  topic  connected 
with  worship,  one  must  examine  systematically  what  each  code  con- 
tains on  that  topic.  This  is  the  comparative  study  of  the  laws  relating 
to  worship. 

§  54.  The  Constructive  Study  of  a  Subject  is  Possible  Only  on  the 
Basis  of  the  Comparative  Study. —  It  is  not  the  earliest  usage  in  a  par- 
ticular case,  e.  g.,  a  distinction  between  the  priest  and  the  laity,  nor  the 
latest,  that  gives  us  a  true  idea  of  Israelitish  thought  and  custom ;  it 
is,  rather,  the  latest  as  growing  out  of  and  including,  not  only  the 
earliest,  but  all  the  intervening  steps  between  the  two.  At  no  one 
time  did  growth  or  decay  stop  ;  and  it  is  only  when  we  have  the  whole 
process  before  us  that  we  begin  to  understand  its  significance. 

§  55.  Side  by  Side  with  the  Codes  We  Find  in  the  Hexateuch  Also  His- 
tories which  refer  frequently  to  customs  of  worship.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  each  code  is  imbedded  in  a  separate  history;  e.  g.,  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code  is  a  part  of  a  great  prophetic  history  beginning  with  the 
creation  and  continuing  down  to  the  times  of  the  Judges ;  (6)  the  Deu- 
teronomic  Code  (Deut.,  chaps.  12-26)  is  a  part  of  a  history  which  is 
found,  not  only  in  the  earlier  part  of  Deuteronomy,  but  also  in  some 
places  in  Joshua,  and  elsewhere  ;  while  (c)  the  Priest  Code  is  also  closely 
connected  with  a  history  which  begins  with  Gen.  i  :  i  and  continues 
through  Numbers.  In  studying  the  subject  of  worship,  it  is  of  interest 
to  note  what  is  said  in  these  histories  concerning  each  subject  considered. 

§  56.  The  Later  Histories  contained  in  the  books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Chronicles  give  especial  attention  to  the  subject  of  worship.  Just 
as  the  history  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  is  written  from  the 
prophetic  point  of  view,  that  in  these  later  books  is  written  from  the 
priestly  point  of  view  (see  §  10),  and  hence  gives  much  information  con- 
cerning the  institutions  of  worship  as  they  existed  at  the  time  these 
books  were  written. 

§57.  The  Prophets  Were  Always  Deeply  Interested  in  Matters  of 
Worship ;  sometimes,  as  opponents  of  the  ideas  and  practices  existing 
in  their  day,  they  were  trying  to  introduce  new  and  better  ideas ;  at 
other  times,  as  allies  of  the  priesthood,  they  were  striving  to  awaken  the 
zeal  of  the  nation  in  behalf  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  In  either  case 
their  writings  contain  much  that  is  of  value  in  a  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Israel's  ideas  concerning  worship. 

§  58.  The  Priest  Code,  Manifestly,  Is  the  Great  Source  of  Informa- 
tion upon  the  subject  of  worship,  because  (a)  it  contains  the  fullest 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  63 

presentation  of  each  subject;  (l>)  it  is  from  the  hands  of  the  priests 
themselves,  who  were  most  deeply  interested ;  and  (<r)  it  presents  the 
latest  stage  of  growth.  But  this  Priest  Code  is  itself  a  growth,  and 
contains  at  least  four  strata  of  material,  each  of  which  represents  a 
different  age  and  stage  of  development.  These  are : 

1.  The  Holiness  Code,  contained  in  Lev.,  chaps.  17-26,  a  body  of 
laws  which,  as   the   name  implies,  lays  especial  emphasis  upon  the 
thought  of  the  holiness  of  God  and  the  necessity  of  corresponding 
holiness  on  the  part  of  his  people. 

2.  A  collection  of  priestly  teachings  in  reference  to  various  sacri- 
ficial and  ritualistic  matters. 

3.  A  set  of  miscellaneous  materials,   such    as  genealogical   lists, 
elaborations  of  laws,  and  illustrative  narratives. 

4.  A  historical  narrative  from  the  creation  up  to  the  settlement  in 
Canaan,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  P  document,  the  three  preceding 
elements  having  been  incorporated  into  it. 

See  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  6th  ed.,  pp. 
126-59;  ADDIS,  The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  169-91;  J.  E.  CAR- 
PENTER AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  121-57. 

§  59.  The  Priest  of  Early  Times,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code ;  (b)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E ;  (c)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings ;  and  (d]  the 
pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances.1 

i.    The  only  allusion  in  the  Covenant  Code.2 
Exod.  20 : 26. 

1  On  the  date,  character,  contents,  and  limits  of  these  various  documents  see 
DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament;  also  J.  E.  CARPENTER 
AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch;  W.  E.  ADDIS,  The  Documents  of  the 
Hexateuch;  BRIGGS,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung 
in  den  Hexateuch;  WELLHAUSEN  AND  CHEYNE,  article  "Hexateuch"  in  Encyclopaedia 
Biblica;  F.  H.  WOODS,  article  "Hexateuch"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible; 
KUENEN,  An  Historico-Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Hexateuch;  WELL- 
HAUSEN, Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  228-391;  STEUERNAGEL,  Allgemeine 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (^Handkommentar  zum  Alt.  Test.,  I.  Abtheilung,  3.  Band, 
pp.  249-86) ;  W.  R.  HARPER  AND  W.  H.  GREEN,  "The  Pentateuchal  Question,"  in 
Hebraica,Vo\.V,  pp.  18-73,  I37~89,  243-91;  Vol.  VI,  pp.  1-48,  109-38,  161-211 
241-95;  Vol.  VII,  pp.  1-38,  104-42;  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  15-64,  I74-243- 

For  a  discussion  of  these  questions  from  a  different  point  of  view  see  especially 
W.  H.  GREEN,  The  Hebrew  Feasts;  cf.  also  BISSELL,  The  Pentateuch,  Its  Origin  and 
Structure;  W.  H.  GREEN,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Moses  and  the 
Prophets, 

*  The  following  references  are  from  the  J  document :  Gen.  8  : 20  f.;  12:8;  22:13 
Exod.  33  :  7-1 1 ;  19  :  22  ;  32  :  25-29 ;  4  : 14-17  ;  32  : 1  ff.;  and  the  following  from  the  E 
document :  Exod.  20 :  26 ;  24  : 4-8  ;  Deut.  33  :  8-1 1 ;   10:6;  Josh.  24  :  33. 


64  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

2.  Non-priests  frequently  do  priestly  work. 

Gen.  8:20  f.;  12:8  ;  22:  13  ;  Exod.  33:7-11  ;  24:4-8  ;  Judg.  13: 19; 
i  Sam.  7:1;  13:8-14  ;  2  Sam.  6: 14-18  ;  i  Kings  18:30-38. 

3.  The  story  of  Micah's  priest. 
Judg.,  chaps.  17  and  18. 

4.  The  consecration  of  the  priest. 

Exod.  19:22;  Judg.  17:5,12;  i  Sam.  7:1. 

5.  The  service  rendered  by  the  priest. 

i  Sam.  4:4;  7:1;  i  Kings  i  :  34  ;  i  Sam.  21 : 1-9  ;  Hos.  4:6;  Mic. 
3:11;  Isa.  28  : 7. 

6.  Priests  were  consulted  as  soothsayers. 
Judg.  18:5,  6;    i  Sam.  23:6-13  ;    30:75. 

7.  The  tribe  of  Levi. 

Exod.  32  :  25-29  ;    Deut.  33  :  8-1 1. 

8.  Aaron  and  his  descendants. 

Exod.  4  : 14-17;   32:  iff.;   Deut.  10:6;   Josh.  24:33. 

9.  The  sons  of  Eli  and  their  behavior. 

i  Sam.  1:3;    2  :  22-25  J    4  =  4;    i  Kings  2  :  27. 

10.  Elijah  and  the  priests  of  Baal, 
i  Kings  18: 19-40. 

11.  The  prophets'  estimate  of  the  priest. 

Hos.  4  :  6-9  ;    5:1;   6:9;   Amos  7  :  10-1 7  ;    Mic.  3:11;    Isa.  28  :  7. 
12..  The  priest's  dress  and  equipment. 

1  Sam.  2:18;   Judg.  17:5;    18:14,20;    I  Sam.  23  : 6,  9-12  ;    30:7,8. 

13.  The  priest's  maintenance. 

Judg.  17:10;    18:4;    i  Sam.  2  :  12-17  ;    2  Kings  12:16. 

14.  The  high-priest. 

2  Kings  12: 10  (?). 

§  60.   Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  lack  of  any  reference  to  priest  in 
the  Covenant  Code  (see  §  15,  (2))? 

2.  What  connection  is  there  between  this  lack  of  reference  and  the 
fact  that  laymen  in  early  times  acted  as  their  own  priests  ?     Is  there 
evidence  that  in  cases  where  non-priests  offered  sacrifice  they  were  doing 
so  (a)  through  regularly  appointed  priests,  or  (£)  by  special  divine 
authority  ? 

3.  Consider  from  the  story  of  Micah's  priest  (a)  the  character  of 
the  times,  (£)  the  existence  of   idolatry,  (c)  the  place  of   the  priest 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  65 

4.  How  early  and  in  what  way  were  priests  set  apart  or  consecrated  ? 

5.  Formulate  a  list  of  the  various  functions  performed  by  the  priest 
in  those  days. 

6.  To  what  extent  did  people  consult  the  priest  about  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  life  ?     Cf.  the  case  of  Samuel  (i  Sam.  9  : 6  ff.,  19  f.). 

7.  With  what  events  and  in  what  connection  do  the  references  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi  in  this  period  appear  ? 

8.  Trace  the  line  of  Aaron  as  it  is  indicated  down  to  later  times. 
What,  according  to  the  tradition,  was  Aaron's  official  relation  to  Moses  ? 

9.  From  the  story  of  Eli's  sons,  point  out  (a)  the  basis  of  their 
right  to  be  priests,  ($)  their  functions  as  priests,  (c)  the  various  ways  in 
which  they  abused  their  office. 

10.  Consider,  in  the  story  of    Elijah  and  the  priest-prophets  of 
Baal,  (a)  the  significance  of  the  large  number  of  prophets  of  Baal,  (&) 
the  non-priestly  character  of  Elijah. 

11.  Enumerate,  one  by  one,  the  shortcomings  of  the  priests  which 
are  criticised  by  the  prophets,  and  consider  whether  this  state  of  things 
owed  its  existence  (a)  to  a  growing  formality  and  emptiness  of  the 
Israelitish  religion,  or  (<$)  to  the  influence  exerted  on  the  Israelitish 
religion  by  the  neighboring  religion,  which  was  very  sensual  in   its 
character,  or  (^)  to  the  fact  that  now  for  the  first  time  the  prophets  are 
holding  up  these  high  ideals,  the  priest-practice  in  Israel,  as  among 
other  nations,  having  always  been  upon  a  low  plane. 

12.  Consider  the  references  to  the  priests'  dress  and  equipment, 
and  explain  particularly  the  ephod,  the  Urim,  and  Thummim.3 

13.  What  evidence  is  there  that  the  priest  in  this  period  had  any 
special  perquisites  or  any  regular  maintenance  ? 

14.  How  much  may  fairly  be  inferred  as   to   the  functions  and 
authority  of  the  high-priest  in  this  period  ? 

3  See  the  article  "  Ephod,"  by  G.  F.  MOORE,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  the  article 
"  Ephod,"  by  S.  R.  DRIVER,  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  VAN  HOONACKER, 
Le  Sacerdoce  levitique,  pp.  370  ff.;  KONIG,  Religious  History  of  Israel,  pp.  107  ff.;  G.  F. 
MOORE,  Judges,  p.  381;  KONIG,  Hauptprobleme,  pp.  59-63;  FOOTE,  "The  Biblical 
Ephod,"  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  Circulars,  May,  1900.  On  "Urim  and  Thum- 
mim" see  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1893);  KIRKPATRICK,  The  First  Book  of 
Samuel  (Cambridge  Bible  Series),  pp.  217!.;  KALISCH,  Exodus,  p.  544;  WELLHAU- 
SEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  394  f.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Jewish  Church,  ad  ed.,  p.  292,  note  I;  T.  WlTTON  DAVIES,  Magic,  Divina- 
tion and  Demonology,  p.  75 ;  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Cambridge  Bible  Series), 
p.  33  ;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  93  f.;  BENZINGER, 
Hebrdische  Archdologie,  pp.  382,  407  f.;  BAUDISSIN,  Die  Geschichte  des  alltestament- 
lichen  Priesterthums  untersucht,  pp.  26  f.;  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  156,471-3,  505  f;  Si 7  f- 


66  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§61.  Constructive  Work. — Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  consid- 
ered, write  a  paper  on  "The  Priest  in  Early  Israelitish  History," 
observing  the  following  suggestions:  (i)  include  only  what  can  be 
corroborated  by  references  to  the  literature  of  this  period  (see  above); 
(2)  use  great  caution  in  making  general  statements  upon  the  basis  of 
few  facts ;  (3)  remember  that  much  may  be  gained  by  ascertaining  what 
did  not  exist. 

§62.  The  Priest  of  the  Deuteronomic  Period,  that  is,  as  described  (a) 
in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  (l>)  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and  (<r)  by  the  prophets  of  the  Deuter- 
onomic period.4 

1.  The  Levites,  that  is,  the  priests,  become  a  distinct  class. 

Deut.  10  :  8;  18  :  i ;   i  Sam.  2  :  28  ;  Jer.  i  :  18;   8:  i  ;  13:  13;  23:  33f.; 
26:7  f.,  ii,  16  ;  28  :  i,  5  ;  33  :2i  ;  34  :  19. 

2.  The  service  rendered  by  "the  priests  the  Levites." 

Deut.  10:8  ;  21 15  ;    33:8-10;   26  :  3  ff.  ;   27:14;    17:18;  31:9;  17:8, 
9, 12  ;  19  : 17  ;  20  :  2  ;  24:8  ;  Jer.  18  :  18. 

3.  The  prophets'  estimate  of  the  priest. 

Jer.  2:8;  5  131  ;  6: 13  ;  14  : 18;  23:  n  ;  32  =  32;  Zeph.  3  :  4. 

4.  A  later  view  of  the  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons. 

1  Sam.  2  :  27-36. 

5.  The  relative  authority  of  priest  and  prophet. 
Jer.  29 :  25  f. ;  5:31;  20  :  i  ff .  ;   1 1  :  1 8-23  ;  cf.  i  :  I . 

6.  Differences  of  rank  within  the  priestly  order. 

2  Kings  23  :  4,  8,  9  ;  Jer.  52  :  24  ;  29  :  25  f.;  19:  i  ;  Deut.  18:6  f. 

7.  Maintenance  of  "the  priests  the  Levites." 
Deut.  10:9;  12:12;  18  :  x-8  ;  14:27,29. 

8.  Residence  of  priests. 

Deut.  18  :  6,  7  ;  Jer.  i :  i  ;  cf.  1 1  :  21,  22  ;  32  :  6  ff.;  Jer.  29  : 1 . 

9.  Priests  consulted  as  soothsayers. 
Deut.  33 :  8. 

§63.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Consider  the  circumstances  which,  ordinarily,  would  encourage 
the  building  up  of  a  special  priest  class.  What  connection  existed 
between  the  centralization  of  worship  in  Jerusalem  (§  27,  (2) ;  cf.  Deut., 
chap.  12)  and  the  growth  of  a  special  class  of  priests?  What  is 
implied  in  the  constantly  recurring  phrase  " the  priests  the  Levites" 

4  References  printed  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in 
Deuteronomy. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  6/ 

(cf.  Deut.  17:18;  18  :  i ;  21  :  5  ;  27  :  9  ;  31  :  9)  ?     Does  it  mean  (cf.  Deut. 
10  :  8)  that  all  priests  were  Levites  and  all  Levites  priests  ? 

2.  Formulate  the  different  functions  which  together  made  up  the 
service  of  "  the  priest  the  Levite,"  distinguishing  between  regular  and 
special  functions.     Consider  the  difference  between  the  work  of  the 
prophet,  the  wise  (man),  and  the  priest  (Deut.  18 :  18;  Jer.  18  : 18). 

3.  What,  according  to  the  prophets,  is  the  priest's  attitude  toward 
Jehovah  and  the  true  religion  ? 

4.  Compare  the  later  view  (i  Sam.  2  : 27-36)  of  the  wickedness  of 
Eli's  sons  with  the  former  (i  Sam.  2  :  12-17,  22~25)>  n°te  the  points  of 
change,  and  consider  to  what  extent  this  is  in  harmony  with  Deuter- 
onomic  representations. 

5.  Recall   the  authority  of  the   prophet  (a)  in  the   days  of  Saul, 
David,  Solomon ;  (b)  in  the  days  of  Elijah  and  Isaiah  ;  and  (c)  consider 
to  what  extent,  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  the  prophet  had  lost  authority, 
while  the  priest  had  gained  it. 

6.  Indicate  the  extent  to  which  differences  of  rank  had  come  to 
exist  among  the  priests,  and  the  significance  of  this  fact. 

7.  Enumerate  very  accurately  the  sources  of  income  and  main- 
tenance which  were  enjoyed  by  "  the  priests  the  Levites." 

8.  Were  there  special  places  of  residence  assigned  to  "  the  priests 
the  Levites"?     Did  priests  own  property? 

9.  Is  there  anything  additional  to  be  said  about  the  use  of  Urim 
and  Thummim  ? 

§64.  Constructive  Work.  —  Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  consid- 
ered, write  a  paper  on  "The  Priest  in  the  Middle  Period  of  Israelitish 
History"  —  that  is,  the  so-called  Deuteronomic  period  —  discussing  par- 
ticularly (#)  the  class  system,  (£)  the  higher  position  now  occupied, 
(c)  the  functions,  (d)  the  maintenance  provided  by  law. 

§  65.  The  Priest  as  Described  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  Ezekiel  himself  was  a  priest. 
Ezek.  1:3;  4:14. 

2.  Priesthood  was  limited  to  the  sons  of  Zadok. 

Ezek.  44  : 15  f.;  40:46;  43  : 19,  24-27  ;  44  16-31 ;  48: 1 1. 

3.  The  priest's  dress. 
Ezek.  42  : 14;  44  : 17-19. 

4.  Special  "holiness"  was  required  of  priests. 
Ezek.  4:14;  44  :  20-22,  25-27,  3 1 . 

5.  Service  rendered  by  priests. 

Ezek.  44  :  ii,  14,  15,  16,  23  f.  ;  40:46;  43  :2i,  24,  27. 


68  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  Residence  of  priests. 

Ezek.  48  : 10-14  ;  42:i3f.;  46:19-24. 

7.  Maintenance  of  priests. 
Ezek.  42  : 13  f.;  44  : 28-30. 

§  66.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  Ezekiel,  and  also  Jere- 
miah, Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi  —  all  the  later  prophets — were 
priests.     Note  that  Ezekiel  preached  his  visions  of  Israel's  glorious 
future  after  the  fall   of  Jerusalem.     Consider  the  circumstances  which 
led  him  to  foresee  and  proclaim  a  system  so  exclusively  ecclesiastical. 

2.  What  limitation  of  the  priesthood  does  he  introduce,  and  why? 
In  what  respect  is  this  an  advance  upon  the  Deuteronomic  usage  ? 

3.  Consider  the  regulations  made  concerning    the  priest's  dress ; 
what  was  their  purpose  ? 

4.  Enumerate  the  particular  requirements  made  of  the  priests  which 
were  intended  to  mark  their  holiness,  and  show,  in  each  case,  how  this 
was  to  be  secured.     In  what  sense  is  the  word  "  holy  "  to  be  understood  ? 

5.  Indicate  in  what  particulars  the  service  required  of  the  priest  in 
Ezekiel's  code  differs  from  that  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (§62,  (2)  ); 
and  show  the  principles  underlying  these  changes. 

6.  What  was  to  be  the  place  of   the   priests'   residence,  and  its 
extent  ?     The  meaning  of  the  word  "  oblation  "  ? 

7.  Prepare  in  detail  a  list  of  the  items  mentioned  which  should 
serve  as  the  maintenance  of  the  priest.     Is  there  any  variation  from 
those  mentioned  in  Deuteronomy  ? 

§67.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  paper  showing  how  the  priest, 
as  seen  in  Ezekiel's  vision,  differed  from  the  priest  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic times. 

§  68.  The  Priest  of  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  (a)  in  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  (&)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  (c)  in  the 
priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles.5 

1.  Distinction  between  priests  and  Levites  everywhere  presupposed. 
Numb.  4: 1-15,  19;  8:14-26;   18:1-7;  I7:1~II>  25:10-13;   '  Chron. 
6:49-53- 

2.  Special  holiness  required  of  priestly  class. 
Lev.  21 : 1-9,  17-23;   22:1-8;    10:6;   Exod.  30:19. 

3.  Service  rendered  by  priests. 

Lev.  10 :  8-n;  Numb.  4  :4-i4, 16;  Lev.  16  :  32;  6:20-22;  Hag.  2  : 1 1-13; 
Mai.  2  :  4-7  ;  Numb.  18 : 1-7 ;   27 : 21 ;  2  Chron.  19:8,  1 1. 
5  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


LAWS   AND   USAGES    CONCERNING   THE    PRIEST  69 

4.  Service  rendered  by  Levites. 

Numb.  4:1-3,  i5,  21-33;  2:17;  3:23-26,  29-32,  35-38;  18:1-7; 
3:5-10;  Ezra  6  :  20  ;  Neh.  1 1  :  15-18,  22  ;  I  Chron.  6 131-48;  15:2; 
23  :  27-32  I  26 :  20-32;  2  Chron.  5  :  4  f.;  19:8,  1 1. 

5.  Influence  and  numbers  of  priestly  class. 

Lev.  16:32;  Numb.  4  : 19,  27  f.,  33 ;  3  =  1-4;  4  =  34-49;  35  =  25-34*,  Hag. 
1:1,12,14;  Zech.  3:1-10;  6:gff.  (?)  ;  Ezra  i  :  5  ;  2:61-63,70; 
3:2,  8-13;  5:2;  6:16;  7:7,  13,  16;  8:15-20,  29  f.;  Neh. 
11:15-18,22;  12:1-26;  3:20,22,28;  5:12;  i  Chron.  6 :  1-47  ; 

.  9:10-34 ;  23: 1-24. 

6.  Place  and  work  of  the  high-priest. 

Numb.  35  :  25-34  I  I«®v.  16  : 4-32  ;  6  :  22  ;  Exod.  29  :  9  ;  Numb.  27  :  21 ; 
Zech.  3:  i-io;  6:9  ff.  (?);  Neh.  13:4,  28-30. 

7.  Consecration  of  high-priest. 

Lev.  21 : 10-15  !  6  =  20-22  ;  8 : 12,  14-36  ;  Exod.,  chap.  29  ;  Lev.,  chap. 
9  ;  Numb.  20  :  23-29. 

8.  Dress  of  priests. 

Neh.  7  :  70-73  ;  Lev.  6  : 10  f.;  8  : 1-9, 13,  30 ;  Exod.,  chap.  28;  39  : 1-31 ; 
40 : 13  f . 

9.  Residence  of  priests. 

i  Chron.  6:54-81;  Josh.  21:1-42;  Numb.  35:2-8;  Neh.  11:3; 
Numb.  2:17;  3  : 23-26,  29-32,  35-38. 

10.  Maintenance  of  priests. 

Lev.  27  : 30-33 ;  chap.  7  ;  Numb.  3  : 4648  ;  Ezra  7  :  24  ;  Neh.  12  :  44-47; 
13:10-14;  Numb.  18:  20  f.,  24-31. 

11.  Courses  of  priests  and  Levites. 

Ezra  6  : 1 8  ;   I  Chron.  24:1  — 26 :  1 9  ;  2  Chron.  5  : 1 1  f . ;  8:12-15. 

12.  Prophets'  estimate  of  the  priests. 

Hag.  2:11-13;  Zech.  3  :  i-io  ;  6  :  9  ff . ;  Mai.  i  :  6-10  ;  2  :  4-9  13:3; 
Isa.  61  :6;  66  :2i;  Joel  1:9,  13  ;  2:17. 

§  69.   Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Is  there  anywhere  (cf.  Neh.  n  :  20)  in  the  post-exilic  literature  a 
passage  in  which  the  words  "priest"  and  "Levite"  are  synonymous? 
Cf.  Deut.  (§62,  (i)),  and  consider  (a)  the  circumstances  which  have 
led  to  this  differentiation,  (b}  its  significance,  and  (c)  the  great  change 
which  has  taken  place  since  the  time  when  everyone  might  be  his  own 
priest  (ff.  §§58,  (2);   15,  (2)). 

2.  What  special  limitations  were  imposed  upon  the  priests  (Aaron's 
sons)  to  secure  their  holiness? 

3.  Enumerate  carefully  the  kinds  of  service  expected  of  the  priests 


70  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(Aaron's  sons),  and  note  how  it  differs  from  that  required  in  Deuter- 
onomy of  "  the  priests  the  Levites." 

4.  Enumerate  the  kinds  of  service  required  of  the  Levites,  and  note 
the  extent  to  which  this  service  was  in  older  times  the  work  of  "the 
priest  the  Levite." 

5.  What  are  the  facts  concerning  the  numbers  of  the  priestly  classes 
in  this  later  period  ?     Are  they  larger  or  smaller  ?     Is  their  influence 
greater  or  less  ?     What  is  the  full  significance  of  these  facts  ? 

6.  What  part  has  the  high-priest  played  in  the  priestly  work  of 
earlier  times  ?     What  is  his  place  and  work  at  this  time  ? 

7.  What  are  the  details  of  the  consecration  of  the  high-priest,  and 
their  interpretation  ? 

8.  Is  more  care  now  given  to  the  peculiar  dress  of  the  high-priest  ? 
If  so,  in  what  details,  and  for  what  reason  ? 

9.  What  special  places  are  set  apart  for  the  residence  of  priests  ? 
Consider  from  various  points  of  view  the  cities  of  refuge,  noting  espe- 
cially the  absence  of  any  reference  to  them  as  Levitical  cities  in  Deu- 
teronomy (19 :  1-13). 

10.  What  additions  appear  to  the  sources  of  income  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  ?     Can  the  priests  any  longer  be  classed  with  the  father- 
less and  widow  as  in  Deut.  14  :  28,  29  ? 

11.  What  is  to  be  understood  by  the  classification  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  into  courses  and  divisions  ? 

12.  How  did  the  prophet,  although  himself  a  priest,  estimate  the 
priests  of  his  times  ? 

§  70.  Constructive  Work. — Upon  the  basis  of  material  in  §69  write 
a  paper  on  the  priest  in  later  Israelitish  history,  noting  especially 
such  points  as  indicate  changes  in  comparison  with  preceding  periods. 

§71.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

STANLEY,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Lecture  XXXVI  (1865); 
S.  I.  CURTISS,  The  Levitical  Priests  (1877);  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel  (1878),  pp.  121-51;  KUENEN,  National  Religions  and  Universal  Religions 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1882),  pp.  314-17;  GREEN,  Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1883),  pp. 
78-83,  127-31;  KALISCH,  Commentary  on  Leviticus,  Part  I,  pp.  559-659;  SCHURER, 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ  (1886),  Second  Division,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  207-305;  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "Priest"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1889); 
MONTEFIORE,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp. 
65-70,  116-18,  etc.;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1892),  see  Index;  KlTTEL, 
History  of  the  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index;  E.  H.  PLUMPTRE,  article  "Priest"  in 
SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  2d  ed.  (1892);  DRIVER,  Deuteronomy  (International 
Critical  Commentary,  1895),  see  Index;  MENZIES,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  pp.  70, 
183;  BRIGGS,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  (1897),  p.  104;  PICK,  "The  Jewish 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  7! 

High  Priests  Subsequent  to  the  Return  from  Babylon,"  in  Lutheran  Church  Review, 
1898,  pp.  127-42,  370-75,  655-64;  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
(1898),  see  Index;  TOY,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  (Polychrome  Bible,  1899), 
pp.  193  f.;  W.  R.  HARPER,  "The  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  as  Seen  in 
the  Laws,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  258-66 ;  DUFF,  Old  Testament  The- 
ology (1891-1900),  see  Index;  G.  A.  COOKE,  article  "Levi"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  (1900);  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments  (1895-1901), 
see  Index;  WALKER,  "  The  Levitical  Priesthood,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature, 
1900,  pp.  124-37 ;  BERLIN,  "Notes  on  Genealogies  of  the  Tribe  of  Levi  in  i  Chron. 
23-26,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  XII  (1900),  pp.  291-8 ;  LAIDLAW,  "The  Priest 
and  the  Prophet,"  Expository  Times,  1900;  H.  M.  CHADWICKE,  "Ancient  Teutonic 
Priesthood,"  Folk-Lore,  Vol.  XI  (1900),  pp.  268-309 ;  ADAMS,  The  Mosaic  Tabernacle: 
Studies  in  the  Priesthood  and  the  Sanctuary  of  the  Jews  (1901). 

GRAF,  "  Zur  Geschichte  des  Stammes  Levi,"  in  MERX,  Archiv  fur  wissenschaft- 
liche  Erforschung  des  Alien  Testamentes,  Vol.  I  (1867),  pp.  68-106,  208-36 ;  MAYBAUM, 
Die  Entwicklung  des  altisraelitischen  Priesterthums  (1880);  SMEND,  Der  Prophet 
Ezechiel  (1880),  pp.  360-62;  KITTEL,  "  Die  Priester  und  Leviten,"  in  Theologische 
Sludien  aus  Wurtemberg,  Vol.  II  (1881),  pp.  147-69;  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  278-314;  KUENEN, 
Historisch-kritische  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alien  Testaments  (1885),  Vol.  I,  pp. 
281  ff.;  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1887),  Vol.  I,  pp.  152  ff.,  468  ff.;  BAUDIS- 
SIN,  Die  Geschichte  des  alttestamentlichen  Priesterthums  (1889);  H.  VOGELSTEIN, 
Der  Kampf  zwischen  Priestern  und  Leviten  seit  den  Tagen  Ezechiels,  Eine  hislorisch- 
kritische  Untersuchung  (1889);  KUENEN,  "Die  Geschichte  des  Jahwepriesterthums 
und  das  Alter  des  Priestergesetzes  "  (1889),  in  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen,^.  465- 
500;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d 
ed.  1899),  see  Index;  BENZINGER,  Hebraische  Archdologie  (1894),  PP-  405-28; 
NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp.  87-130;  MARTI, 
Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  pp.  44  ff.,  50,  72,  etc.*  H.  BOURY,  Les 
Pretres  d'fsraet(i8g8) ;  HUMMELAUER,  Das  vormosaische  Priesterthum  in  Israel ( 1899); 
VAN  HOONACKER,  Le  Sacerdoce  Uvitique  (1899),  and  "  Les  Pretres  et  les  Le"vites  dans 
le  livre  d'Eze"kiel,"  Revue  biblique,  1899,  pp.  177-205. 

See  also  the  commentaries  of  Delitzsch,  Dillmann,  Holzinger,  and  Gunkel  on 
Genesis ;  of  Dillmann,  Holzinger,  and  Baentzsch  on  Exodus ;  of  Dillmann  and 
Baentsch  on  Leviticus ;  of  Steuernagel  and  Bertholet  on  Deuteronomy ;  and  of 
Davidson,  Bertholet,  and  Kraetzschmar  on  Ezekiel. 

§72.     Supplementary  Topics . 

1.  Consider  that  the  Psalter  was  the  songbook  of  the  temple,  and 
from  an  examination  of  Pss.  78  :  64 ;  99  :  6  ;  105  :  26 ;   106  :  16,  30  f. ; 
no:  4;  115:10,  12;   118:3;   132:9.  J6;   133:2;   i34:i-3;   ^S'lQf- 
formulate  the  thought  relating  to  \^ priest  which  is  found  in  the  Psalter. 

2.  Why  do  no  direct  references  to  the  work  and  life  of  the  priest 
occur  in  the  Wisdom  Literature,  /.  e.,  in  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
and  Song  of  Songs  ? 

3.  Consider  briefly  the  subject  of  the  priest  in   New  Testament 
writings,  e.  g.,  Matt.  2:458:4;  12:4  f-  >  16:21;  20  :  18  ;  21:15;  26  :  3  ; 
27:1;    Mark  2  :  26 ;    Luke    i  :  5,  8,  9  ;    10:31;    17  :  14;    John   i  :  19; 


72  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Acts  4:  i,  36;  6:7;  Heb.  2:17;  3:1;  4  :  14  f. ;  5: 1,5  f.,  10;  6:20; 
chap.  7;  8  :  i,  3  f.;  9  :6  f.,  n,  25  ;  10:11,  21  ;  13  :n;  i  Peter  2  :  5,  9 ; 
Rev.  i  :  6 ;  5:10;  20  :  6  ;  etc.,  and  indicate  such  points  of  difference, 
as  compared  with  the  position  and  work  of  the  priest  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  seem  most  important. 

4.  Compare  roughly  the  place  of  the  priest  among  the  Egyptians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  differ- 
ence as  compared  with  that  of  the  priest  among  the  Hebrews. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Priest"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;  the  articles 
"Pontifex"  and  "Sacerdos"  in  HARPER'S  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and 
Antiquities;  MARTHA,  Les  Sacerdoces  atheniens. 

5.  Consider  the  original   meaning  and  exact  usage  of   the  words 
for  priest,  in  Hebrew  "tHS*  Greek  lepeus,  Latin  sacerdos. 

Cf.  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Priest "  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  746 ;  NOWACK, 
Hebr.  Arch.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  89  f. ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  130  i. 

6.  Consider  the  place  of  the  priest  among  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs, 
and  the  Canaanites,  who  were  closely  related  Semitic  nations,  and  note 
points  of  similarity  and  difference  as  compared  with  his  place  among 
the  Hebrews. 

See  especially  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Index) ;  W.  R.  SMITH, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  (Index) ;  McCURDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments 
(Index} ;  HAUPT,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual,"  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-81 ;  SAYCE,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and  Cus- 
toms, pp.  249  ff.;  L.  W.  KING,  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythology,  pp.  210  ff. 

7.  Consider  the  conception  which  existed  among  the  Israelites  that 
their  nation  was  a  kingdom  of  priests  (cf.  Exod.  19:6),  the  basis  of  this 
conception,  the  extent  to  which  it  was  held,  the  influence  which  it 
exerted,  and  its  connection  with  other  Israelitish  ideas,  e.  g.,  with  the 
idea  of  God,  with  the  idea  of  the  Day  of  Jehovah,  and  with  their  con- 
ception of  their  relation  to  the  world. 

8.  Consider,  in  general,  what  may  be  called  the  outside  functions  of 
the  priest, i.e.,  those  functions  which  were  not  distinctly  priestly;  e.g., 
his  place  in  war,  Deut.  20:2;  Numb.    10:1-9;   i  Sam.  4:4,  n;  in 
education,  Lev.  10  :  n  ;  Neh.  8  :  2,  9,  13 ;  in  administration  of  justice, 
Deut.  1 7  :  8  f.,  1 2  ;  1 9  :  1 7  ;  2 1  :  5  ;  in  prophecy,  Deut.  33:8;  Jer.  i  :  i ; 
Ezek.  1:3;  4  :  14. 

9.  From  a  study  of  the  books  of  Maccabees  prepare  a  statement 
showing  what  were  the  place,  the  function,  the  character,  the  influence, 
the  dress,  the  place  of  residence,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  priesthood 
about  165  B.  C. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  73 

See,  e.  g.,  i  Mace.,  chap .  2  ;  3  :  45-51  ;  4  :  38,  42  f.;  5  :  6  f.;  7  :  9,  14  ff.f 
20-25,  33-38;  io:2of.,  32;  11:23-27,  57  f.;  12:5-23;  13:36  ff.,  42; 
14:  20,  23,  27-49  ;  15  :  I  f.,  6,  21,  24  ;  16: 11  ff.,  24;  2  Mace,  i  :  15  ff.,  19-36  ; 
2:17;  3:1,  9,  15  f.,  21,  32-36;  4:7ff-  24,  29;  11:3;  14  :  3.  7.  13  ;  15:12. 

10.  Take  up  more  seriously  the  general  relation  of  the  priest  to 
the  prophet;  e.  g.,  (a)  Was  there  an  early  time  and  a  later  time  when 
the  two  offices  were  not  clearly  distinguished  ?     (b]  What  were  the 
circumstances,  in  each  case,  which  led  to  this  lack  of  distinction  ? 
(c)  How  far  may  the  priest  be  said  always  to  have  been  engaged  in 
struggle  with  the  prophet  ?     (</)  What  was  the  relation  of  each  to  the 
other  (i)  in  order  of  time,  (2)  in  order  of  thought  ? 

11.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  priest  as  a  mediator  between 
God  and  the  people.     What  influences  led  to  the  idea  that  this  class 
of  men  could  obtain  access  to  God  more  readily  than  other  men  ? 
What  was  the  relation  between  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  priestly  medi- 
ation and  the  acceptance  of  larger  ideas  of  God  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    LAWS  AND   USAGES   CONCERNING   THE   PLACE    OF  WORSHIP,  CONSID- 
ERED   COMPARATIVELY. 

§73.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Early  Period,  that  is,  as  described 
in  (a)  the  Covenant  Code,  (6)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E,  (c) 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  and(</) 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i). 

1.  The  only  reference  in  the  Covenant  Code.' 
Exod.  20  124  ff. 

2.  The  patriarchs  had  sanctuaries  in  various  places,  according  to 
convenience. 

Gen.  8:20;  12:6-8;  13:18;  26:24!.;  28:17,  22;  35:14;  Judg. 
20  :  18,  26  ff.;  21  :  4. 

3.  A  tent  of  meeting  was  used  as  the  place  for  seeking  God. 
Exod.  33  :  7-1 1 ;  Numb.  1 1  :  16  f.,  24  f.;  12  :  4-10  ;   i   Kings  2  :  28-30. 

4.  There  was  a  chest  or  ark  which  contained   articles  emblematic 
of  the  divine  presence. 

Numb.  10  :  33-36  ;  Josh.,  chap.  3  ;  Judg.  20 :  27. 

5.  There  were  local  shrines,  at  which  offerings  were  made. 

Exod.  3:  i;  20:24;  Numb.  23:1-6,  14-17  ;  Judg.  6  : 18-26  ;  13:15- 
23;  20:18,  26  ff.;  21:4;  i  Sam.  1:3,  21;  2:14;  3:1-21,  10:8; 
14  :  35  ;  i  Kings  3:4;  18  :  30-38  ;  Deut.  27  :  5-7. 

6.  In  course  of  time  a  temple  was  built  for  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
2  Sam.    7:1-7;    24:21-25;     i    Kings   6:1-38;    2    Kings  12:4-16; 
15:35^;  i8:i5f. 

7.  The  altar  was  used  as  a  place  of  refuge,  and  as  such  was  sacred. 
i  Kings  2  :  28-30. 

8.  The  prophets  make  reference  to  places  of  worship. 

Amos  2:8;3:i4;4:4;  5:5;  7:9,  13;  8:14;  9:1;  Isa.  1:12;  6:  i,  4; 
8:14;  Hos.  4:13,  15;  8:1;  9:  4,  8,  15;  10:  8;  12:11;  Mic.  3:12. 

§  74.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Consider,  in  reference  to  Exod.  20:  24-26,  (a)  the  meaning  of 
the  emphasis  laid  on  earth  as  the  material  for  the  altar ;  (t>)  the  reason 

'The  following  are  J-references:  Gen.  8:20;  12:6-8;  13:18;  26:24f.;  35:14; 
Exod.  33:  7-11  (?);  Numb.  II:  16  £.,24  f.;  Josh.,  chap.  3  (in  the  main);  Numb.  23:  1-6, 
14-17  (?).  The  following  are  E-references  :  Gen.  28  : 17,  24;  Exod.  20:24  ff.;  Numb. 
12:4-10;  10:33-36;  Exod.3:i;  Deut.  27:5-7. 

74 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP       75 

for  objection  to  stone  as  a  material ;  (c)  the  reason  for  objection  to 
steps ;  and  (d)  the  general  primitive  character  of  the  whole  regulation. 
(C/.§i5.) 

2.  What  connection  was  there  between  this  primitive  form  of  the 
altar  and  the  custom  of  the  patriarchs  to  build  an  altar  wherever  they 
pitched  their  tents  ?     (Cf.  §  15  (i) .) 

3.  Consider  the  occasions  on  which  reference  is  made  to  the  tent 
of  meeting,  and  note  the  uses  made  of  it. 

4.  Was  the  use  made  of  the  ark  or  chest  one  which  elevated  Israel, 
or  one  which,  upon  the  whole,  encouraged  a  low  conception  of  God  ? 

5.  Was  there  anything  to  indicate  that  this  or  that  place  should 
be  used  as  a  shrine  or  place  of  worship  ?     Was  there  danger  that  in  the 
use  of  these  widely  scattered  shrines  corrupt  practices  might  be  intro- 
duced ?     (#§18(1).) 

6.  What  were  the  political  and  social  factors  that  were  connected 
with  the  building  of  the  temple  ?     What  immediate  effects  upon  wor- 
ship might  be  expected  to  follow?     (Cf.  §  17  (i)  (</)  .) 

7.  On  what  principle  did  the  use  of  the  altar  as  an  asylum  or  place 
of  refuge  rest  ?     Was  this  a  usage  among  other  nations  ?* 

8.  What  impression  does  one  gather  from  the.  references  made  by 
the  prophets  to  places  of  worship  ? 

§  75.  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Middle  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in 
(a)  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  (b)  the  utterances  of  the  Deuteronomic 
prophets,  and  (c)  the  Deuteronomic  histories. 

1.  All  local  sanctuaries  are  prohibited.3 

Deut.  12  :  2-4,  13,  17  ;  16  :  5  ;  2  Kings  23  :  1-20. 

2.  Jerusalem  is  the  only  authorized  place  for  worship. 

Deut.    12:5-8,  ii,   12,    14,  18,  26 f.;    14:23-26;    i5:igf.;    16:2,  5-7, 
ii,  15  f.;  26:  2  ;   i  Kings  12  :  25 — 13  :  6  ;  21:7;  22  :  3-8. 

3.  The  temple  at  Jerusalem  becomes  the  supreme  court  of  justice. 
Deut.  17  :  8ff. 

4.  The  ark  is  the  receptacle  of  the  two  stone  tables  of  the  law. 
Deut.  10 :  1-5,  8. 

5.  The  prophets'  teaching  concerning  the  temple. 

Ter.  7  :  1-5,  10-15  ;  12:7;   17  :  12,  26  ;  Zeph.  3:4;  Hab.  2  :  20. 

3  Cf.  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  2d  ed.,  pp.  148  f.;  G.  F.  MOORE,  article 
"  Asylum  "  in  Encyclopedia  Bibhca ;  J.  G.  FRAZER,  "  The  Origin  of  Totemism  and 
Exogamy,"  Fortnightly  Review,  April,  1899;  STENGEL,  article  "Asylon"  in  Realen- 
cydopddie  der  classischen  Alterthums-wissenschaft ;  BARTH,  De  Asylis  Graecis. 

3  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteron- 
omy. 


76  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  The  destruction  of  Solomon's  temple. 

2  Kings  25  :g,  13-16. 
§  76.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  circumstances  which,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  led 
to  the  prohibition  of  local  sanctuaries.     What  was  to  be  gained  by  this 
revolution  in  practice  ?     (Cf.  §  28  (3).) 

2.  What  must  have  been  the  sociological  changes  which  followed 
the  centralization  of  worship  in  one  place,  e.  g.,  its  effect  on  commerce ; 
on  the  general  intelligence  of  the  people ;  on  the  relative  position  of 
men  and  women  ;  on  habits  of  life  ?     (Cf.  §  28  (7).) 

3.  What  would  naturally  follow  such  a  change  of  practice  in  the 
relative  desirability  of  city  and  country  life,  and  what  would  be  the 
effect  upon  Jerusalem  as  the  center  of  political  and  judicial  life? 

4.  Consider  the  material  of  which  the  chest  was  made  and  the  use 
to  which  it  was  put. 

5.  Note  how  in  this  period  the  temple  had  fallen  into  disrepute  in 
the  opinion  of  the  prophets,  and  why  this  happened. 

6.  Consider  the  details  and  the  significance  of  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  temple. 

§  77.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  Ezekiel. 

1.  There  is  evidence  of  the  existence  of  irregular  altars. 
Ezek.  6  :  3,  4,  6,  13. 

2.  The   temple   at   Jerusalem    is    represented    as  the  only  lawful 
sanctuary. 

Ezek,  20 : 40. 

3.  The  temple  is  desecrated  by  those  who  profane  its  use. 
Ezek.  8:3-18;  23:38f.;  44:6-8. 

4.  Feeling  toward  those  who  took  part   in  the  destruction  of  the 
temple. 

Ezek.  25:3. 

5.  The  future  temple. 

Ezek.  37:26-28;  40:5  —  43  =  17;  44:9;    45  '•$'>  46  : 1-3;  46:19-24; 
48:8  f.,  21. 
§  78.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  fact  that  at  so  late  a  time  as  that  of  Ezekiel  there 
still  existed  irregular  altars,  and  what  was  involved  in  this  fact. 

2.  Note  Ezekiel's  statement  as  to  the  proper  place  of  worship  in 
the  future  (<:/.  §31  (a)). 

3.  What  were  the  prophet's  feelings  as  to  the  abuse  of  the  temple 
in  his  times  ? 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP       77 

4.  Consider  the  relation  of  Ezekiel's  temple  (*.  e.,  the  temple  of 
his  vision)  to  that  of  Solomon,  (a)  architecturally,  (b)  in  the  promi- 
nence it  is  to  occupy  in  the  routine  of  worship. 

§  79.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described 
(a)  in  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  (<£)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and 
(c)  in  the  priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles. 

1.  Worship  may  be  conducted  only  at  one  central  sanctuary.4 
Lev.  17:1-9;     Exod.  29 : 42-45 ;     2  Chron.  11:16;     Neh.  8:16;     cf. 
Isa.  19 : 19. 

2.  Ancient  sanctuaries  are  condemned. 

Lev.  26  : 27-31 ;     Josh.  22  : 9-34  ;     Isa.  27  :  9;     i  Chron.  21:28  f.;     2 
Chron.  i  :  1-5  ;    32  :  12  ;   33  :  17. 

3.  Description  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furnishings. 

Ezod.  25:8  —  27:19;   35:4  —  40:38;    Numb.  8:1-4;   Exod.  27  :  20  f.; 
Lev.  24 : 1-4 ;  Numb.  7: 1-83. 

4.  Description  of  the  ark. 

Exod.  25  : 10-22  ;  37  : 1-9 ;  2  Chron.  i  :  1-5. 

5.  The  building  of  Solomon's  temple. 

1  Chron.  17:  i  ff.;    21  :!$£{.;    21:28  f.;    22:6ff.;    23:12.;    28:1-3 
11-21  ;  2  Chron.  2  :  i  —  5  :i ;   chaps.  6  and  7. 

6.  The  building  of  the  second  temple. 

Ezra  i  :2ff.;  2  :68  ;  3  18-13  ;  5  :2~5  ;  5  :6ff.;  6  :  3  ff.,  14  ff.;  7  : 19-23 

7.  A  later  view,  of  the  place  of  the  tabernacle  in  religious  life. 
Numb.  9:  15-23. 

8.  Later  views  of  the  place  of  Solomon's  temple  in  Israel's  wor- 
ship. 

2  Chron.  20  :  28  ;   24:4-15;    27:2f.;    chap.  29. 

9.  The  sanctuary  as  the  place  of  God's  self-manifestation. 
Exod.  25  :  22  ;  29  :  43  ;   Numb.  16:41  ff.;  Mai.  3:1;  Numb.  7  189. 

10.  The  altar  of  burnt-offering. 

Lev.  inoff. ;   6:9-13;    Numb.  16:36-40;   7:84-88. 
n.  The  prophets'  attitude  toward  the  sanctuary. 

Isa.  56  :  7 ;    60  : 7  ;    Hag.  i  :  2-4,  7  f.;    2  :  3,  9  ;  Zech.   i  :  16  ;  4:94 

6:12-15;   8:9;    I4:i6ff.;    Mai.  3  : 1  ;    Mic.  4  : 1-4  ;  Joel  i  :  9,  13  f. 

1 6  ;    Dan.  8  : 1 1  ;   9:17;    11:31. 
12.  Holiness  of  the  sanctuary. 

Lev.  26:2;    19:30;   8:iof.;    Numb.  3:31  f.;    4:4-15;    Neh.  6  :  10  f.; 

13  :  4  ff.;  2  Chron.  33:  4,  7,  15  ;   36:17  ;    Dan.  8:11  ;  9:17  ;    11:31. 

4  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


78  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  80.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Note  that  what  was   represented  as  a  matter  of  reform  in  the 
middle    period,  viz.,  the  restriction    of  worship  to  a  single   central 
sanctuary,  now  appears  as  a  fundamental  principle,  everywhere  taken  for 
granted. 

2.  Consider  the  attitude  of  writers  of  this  period  to    the  sanc- 
tuaries which  had  existed  in  earlier  times. 

3.  Note  (a)  the  great  detail  with  which  the  tabernacle  is  described; 
(<$)  the  elaborate  character  of  the  tabernacle  from  an  artistic  point  of 
view  ;  and  consider  whether  this  description  is  to  be  taken  (i)  literally, 
a  tent  of  this  kind  having  actually  existed  in  the  earliest  times,  or  (2)  as  a 
piece  of  splendid  idealization,  similar  in  some  respects  to  Ezekiel's 
vision.     What  is  involved  in  each  of  these  propositions? 

4.  What,  in  general,  was  the  ark,  and  what,  in  particular,  was  the 
purpose  it  was  intended  to  serve? 

5.  Compare  the  references  in  Chronicles  to  the  building  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  with  those  in  Kings  (§73  (6)),  and  classify  the  results  of 
the  comparison. 

6.  Consider  in  the  case  of  the  second  temple  (a)  the  date  of  its 
erection  ;    (6)  its  relative  size  and  character  in   comparison   with  the 
first ;    (c)  the  special  circumstances  under  which  it  was  built. 

7.  What  was  the  later  view  of  the  place  of  the  tabernacle  in  Israel's 
religious  life,  as  seen  in  Numb.  9:  15-23? 

8.  Consider  later  views  also  as  to  the  place  of  Solomon's  temple  in 
Israel's  worship. 

9.  To  what  extent  was  Israel's  God  believed  to  use  the  sanctuary 
as  a  place  for  manifesting  his  presence? 

10.  What  was  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  and  its  peculiar  function? 
n.  How  did  the  later  prophets  regard  the  sanctuary  and  its  service? 
12.  What  is  meant  by  the  holiness  of  the  sanctuary,  and  in  what 

did  this  consist  ? 

§  8 1 .    Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

JAMES  FERGUSSON,  article  "  Temple  "  in  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1863) ; 
EWAI.D,  The  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed.  1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  117-30;  KUENEN, 
The  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  96-100,  241  f.,  256-60,  305 
f.,  328  ff.,  334-9,  390-95  ;  OEHLER,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1870,  transl.  1883),  pp. 
250-58;  EDERSHEIM,  The  Temple,  its  Ministry  and  Services  as  They  Existed  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (1874);  TYLOR,  Primitive  Culture  (1874),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Sacred  Springs,  etc.;"  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel  (\%1$), 
pp.  17-51;  CONDER,  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  1882,  pp.  75 
ff.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (ist  ed.  1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP        79 

"Sanctuaries;"  H.  P.  SMITH,  "  The  High  Place,"  The  Hebrew  Student,  1883,  pp. 
225-34;  CONDER,  Heth  and  Moab  (I%%T,),  chaps,  vii,  viii;  PERROT  AND  CHIPIEZ,  His- 
tory of  Artin  Phoenicia  (1885) ;  E.  C.  ROBINS,  The  Temple  of  Solomon  (1887);  CONDER, 
Syrian  Stone  Lore  (1887),  pp.  42  f.,  70;  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews  (1888-92, 
transl.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  High  Places,"  "  Temple  ;  "  ROBERTSON,  Early  Religion 
of  Israel  ( 1889),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sanctuaries,"  "Tabernacle,"  "Temple,"  etc.;  W. 
R.  SMITH,  article  "Temple"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1889);  W.  R.  SMITH, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  (ist  ed.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  pp.  140-212  ;  H.  SULLY,  The  Tem- 
ple of  Ezekiel's  Prophecy  (1889);  PERROT  AND  CHIPIEZ,  History  of  Art  in  Judea 
(1890) ;  J.  POLLARD,  "On  the  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  Altar  Discovered  ....  in  Syria," 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,  1891,  pp.  286  ff.;  DUFF,  Old  Testa- 
ment Theology  (1891-1900),  see  Indexes,  s.  v.  "  Altar,"  "Place,"  "  Sanctuary,"  etc.; 
SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Sanctuary,"  "  Tabernacle," 
"Temple,"  etc.;  C.  BALLING,  Jerusalem's  Temple  (1892);  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  High  Places,"  "Temple  ;  "  J.  STRONG, 
"The  Tabernacle,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  I  (1893),  pp.  270-77;  MENZIES,  History 
of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Temples  ;  "  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the 
Monuments,  Vols.  I-III  (1895-1901),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Temple;"  DRIVER,  Deuteron- 
omy (1895),  pp.  xliii-li;  W.  G.  MOOREHEAD,  Studies  in  the  Mosaic  Institutions  (1896), 
pp.  31-90;  TRUMBULL,  The  Threshold  Covenant  (1896),  pp.  1-164;  WIEDEMANN, 
Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  pp.  200-206;  H.  B.  GREENE,  "  Hebrew 
Rock  Altars,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  IX  (1897),  pp.  329-40;  A.  BUCKLER,  "The  Fore- 
Court  of  Women  and  the  Brass  Gate  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,"  Jewish  Quarterly 
Review,  1898,  pp.  678-718 ;  J.  A.  SEISS,  "The  Great  Temples  at  Baalbec,"  Lutheran 
Church  Review,  1898,  pp.  27 1-93  ;  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898), 
see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Temples ; "  G.  C.  M.  DOUGLAS,  "  Ezekiel's  Temple,"  Expository 
Times,  1898,  pp.  365  ff.,  420  ff.,  468  ff.,  515-19;  A.  S.  KENNEDY,  article  "Altar" 
in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1898);  C.  SCHICK,  "Remarks  on  the  Taber- 
nacle Controversy,"  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  1898,  pp.  241-3; 
EM.  SCHMIDT,  "Solomon's  Temple,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  164-71; 
A.  H.  SAYCE,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and  Customs  (1899),  pp.  246  ff.;  W.  E. 
ADDIS,  article  "Altar"  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1899);  W.  C.  ALLEN,  article  "  High 
Place"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible -'(1899);  BENSON  AND  GOURLAY,  The 
Temple  of  Mut  in  Asher,  etc.  (1899) ;  T.  F.  WRIGHT,  "  Was  the  Tabernacle  Oriental  ?" 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  1899,  pp.  195-8;  TH.  G.  SCARES,  "Ezekiel's  Temple," 
Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  93-103;  S.  I.  CURTISS,  "The  High  Place  and 
Altar  at  Petra,"  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  1900,  pp.  351-5  ;  L. 
W.  BATTEN,  "  The  Sanctuary  at  Shiloh,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX 
(1900),  pp.  29-33;  G.  ALLEN,  "  Sacred  Stones,"  Fortnightly  Review,  January,  1900; 
STIBITZ,  "  The  Centralization  of  Jehovah  Worship  in  Israel,"  Reformed  Church  Review, 
January,  1900;  JOHN  ADAMS,  The  Mosaic  Tabernacle:  Studies  in  the  Priesthood  and 
the  Sanctuary  of  the  Jews  (1901);  G.  F.  MOORE,  article  "High  Place"  in  Encyclo- 
pedia Biblica  (1901). 

BAHR,  Der  salomonische  Tempel,  mit  Beriicksichtigung  seines  Verhdltnisses  zur 
hebrdischen  Architektur  uberhaupt(i%4%);  MERZ, article " Tempel " in Real-Encyklopddie 
fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (ist  ed.  1854-68,  2d  ed.  1877  ff-)  J  BALMER- 
RlNCK,  Des  Propheten  Ezechiel  Gesicht  vom  Tempel  (1858);  KAMPHAUSEN,  "Bemer- 
kungen  iiber  die  Stiftshiitte,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1858,  pp.  97-121; 


8O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

1859,  pp.  110-20;  FRIES,  "Zu  Kamphausen's  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  Stiftshiitte," 
Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1859,  pp.  103-10;  POPPER,  Der  biblische  Bericht 
iiber  die  Stiftshiitte  (1862);  RiGGENBACH,  "  Die  mosaische  Stiftshiitte  :  Selbstanzeige," 
Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1863,  pp.  361-8  ;  H.  PlERSON,  De  heilige  steenen 
in  fsrael(i864  ff.) ;  H.  OoRT, "  De  heiligdommen  van  Jehovah  te  Dan  en  te  Bethel  voor 
Jerobeam  I.,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  1867,  pp.  285-306;  DUHM,  Die  Theologie  der 
Propheten  (1875)^  pp.  312-20;  BAUDISSIN,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol.11  (1878),  pp.  143-269;  KiJHN,  "Ezechiel's  Gesicht  vom  Tempel  der  Vollen- 
dungszeil,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1882,  pp.  601-88;  KOHLBRUGGE, 
Die  Stiftshiitte  und  ihre  Gerdthe  (1882);  STADE,  "Der  Text  des  Berichtes  iiber 
Salomos  Bauten,  I  Ko.  5-7,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamenlliche  Wissenschaft,  1883, 
pp.  129-77 '»  SMEND,  "  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  des  jerusalemischen  Tempels  in  der 
alttestamentlichen  Religion,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1884,  pp.  689-740 ; 
SCHURER,  article  "Tempel  Salome's"  in  RIEHM'S Handwbrterbuch  des biblischen  Alter- 
thums  (1884);  H.  PAILLOUX,  Monographic  du  temple  de  Salomon  (1885);  STADE, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1887  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  325-43,  446-67;  Vol.  II,  pp.  45  ff., 
113-28,  245-51 ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidenthums  (1887),  pp.  42-60, 
98-105,  113,  171;  TH.  FRIEDRICH,  Tempel  und  Palast  Salomos  u.  s.  w.  (1887);  O. 
WOLFF,  Der  Tempel  von  Jerusalem  und  seine  Maasse  (1887);  H.  L.  SCHOUTEN,  De 
tabernakel  Gods  heiligdom  by  Israel  (1888);  C.  CHIPIEZ  ET  G.  PERROT,  Le  temple  de 
Jerusalem  et  la  maison  du  Bois-Libanon,  restitufs  d^apres  Ezechiel  et  le  livre  des  Rois 
(1889);  F.  V.  ANDRIAN,  Der  Hbhenkult  asiatischer  und  europdischer  Vblker  (1891); 
PIEPENBRING,  "  Histoire  des  lieux  de  culte  et  du  sacerdoce  en  Israel,"  Revue  de  rhis- 
toire  des  religions,  Vol.  XXIV  (1891),  pp.  1-60,  133-86;  E.  DE  BROGLIE,  "La  loi  de 
1'unite"  de  sanctuaire  en  Israel,"  Compte  rendu  du  congres  scientifique  international 
des  catholiques,  1892,  2d  sect,  pp.  69-89;  MARTI,  Geschiehte  der  israelitischen  Reli- 
gion (1897),  pp.  27-31,  98-103;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
gesckichte(is\.t&.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  pp.  128-38;  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie 
(1894),  pp.  243-9,  364-404;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894), 
Vol.11,  pp.  1-86;  DILLMANN,  Handbuch  der  altlestamentlichen  Theologie  ( 1895),  see 
Index,  s.  v.  " Tempel ;"  H.  A.  POELS,  Le  sanctuaire  de  Kirjath-Jearim  (1895);  S.  A. 
FRIES,  Den  israelitiska  kultens  centralisation  (1895) »  E.  SCHURE,  Sanctuaires  d' } Orient, 
Egypte,  Grece,  Palestine  (1898);  AUG.  FREIHERR  VON  GALL,  Altisraelitische  Kult- 
stdtten  (1898);  B.  A.,  "Die  heiligen  Statten  in  Palastina,"  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen 
Zeitung  (1898),  No.  221 ;  F.  TOURNIER,  "Notes  sur  les  temples  paiens  de  furviere  a 
r<5poque  romaine,"  L?  Universiti  catholique,  1899,  pp.  361-92;  BASSET,  "Les  sanctu- 
aires  du  Djebel  Nefousa,"  Journal  asiatique,  1900;  MEINHOLD,  Die  Lade  Jahves 
(1900);  ERNST  SELLIN,  Studien  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  der  jiidischen  Gemeinde 
nach  dem  babylonischen  Exil,  Vol.  II  (1901).  pp.  44-56  ;  B.  STADE,  "  Die  Kesselwagen 
des  salomonischen  Tempels,  I  K6.  7  : 27-39,"  Zeitschrift  Jur  die  alttestamentliche  Wis- 
senschaft.  Vol.  XXI  (1901),  pp.  145-90;  K.  BUDDE,  "Die  urspriingliche  Bedeutung 
der  Lade  Jahwe's,"  ibid.  (1901). 

§  82.  Supplementary  Topics. 

i.  Consider  the  following  citations  from  the  book  of  Psalms  15:7; 
11:4;  20:2;  22:25;  24:3;  26:6-8,  12  ;  27:4-6;  28:2  ;  29:9; 
36:8  ;  40  :  9;  42  =4;  43:3  f.;  46  :  4 ;  48:  i  f.,  8  f.;  51  :  18  f.;  52  :8  ; 
55:  14;  61  :  4;  63  =  2  ;  65:  i,  4  ;  66:  13;  68:  15-17,  24,  29;  69:9; 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP       8 1 

73:17;  74:2  ff.;  76:2;  77^3;  78:54,  58,  60,  68  f.;  79:1-13; 
84;  87;  92:13;  93:5;  96:6-8;  99:9;  100:4;  J02:i3ff.;  114:2; 
122;  125  :  i;  127:1  (?);  132  ;  134;  135:  i  f.;  138:2;  and  formulate 
a  statement  concerning  the  place  of  worship  as  it  stands  related  to  the 
idea  of  worship  as  expressed  in  the  Psalter. 

2.  Examine  the  allusions  to  the  place  of  worship  found  in  the  apoc- 
ryphal books,  e.  g.,  i  Mace.  4  :  36-59  ;  5  :  i,  68  ;  6  :  7,  18,  26,  51,  54  ; 
7:33-38;  9:54-57  ;   io:4i-44;  ii  =37;  13:  3>  65  14:  i5>  48  ;  16  :  20; 
2  Mace,  i  :  8,  15  ff.,   18,  32-34  ;    2  :  i  ff.,  17-19,  22  ;    3:2,  12,  14  ff.; 
4:14;    5:15-21;     6:2-5;    8:17;    9:16;    10:1-8,26;    13:8,23; 
14:4,  31-33,  36  ;  and  note  any  important  modifications  which  seem 
to  have  been  made. 

3.  Consider  the  place  of  worship  as  it  is  referred  to  in  the  New 
Testament,  e.  g.,  in  Matt.  4:3;    6  :  2,  6  ;    9  :  35  ;  12  :  4-6,  9  ;   13  :  54 ; 
21:12-14,23;    23  :  16-22,  35;  24  :  i  ff.,  15  ;    26:61;    27:5;    Mark 

1  :  21-29;  3  :  i  5  5  :  22>  35  ff-;  6  :  2  ff.;   u  :  15  ff.,  27;  12  :  41  ff.;  13  :  i 
ff.,  9  ;    14  =  S8  ;    Luke   i  :  8-23  52:22  ff.,  41  ff.;   4  : 16,  20,  28,  33,  38, 
44;    6:6;    8:41,49^3:10;    19  :  45  ft.;    21:1-6,37!.;    22  :  52  f.; 
John  2  :  13-22  ;  4  :  19-24 ;  7:  14,  28  ;   1 1  :  55  ff.;   16:2;  Acts  i  :  13  f.; 

2  :  i  ff.,  46  ;  3  :  i  ff.;  4:1;  6  :  13  f.;  9  :  i  f.,  20  ;   13  :  14  f.,  43 ;  14:1; 
16  :  16  ;  17:1  ff.,  10,  17;    18  :  4,  8,  19  ;    19:8  f.;    20  :  7  ff.;    21  ':  26  ff.; 
22  :  19  ;    25  :  8  ;    28  :  30  f.;   i  Cor.  8  :  10  ;    16:19;    Eph.  2  :  19-22  ;   i 
Tim.  3  :  15;    Philem.,  vs.  i ;    Heb.  8  :  i  f.;    9  :  1-12,  24  f.;     10  :  19  f.; 
12:18  ff.;    13:10  ff.;    Rev.  8:3;    9:13;    n:if.,  19;    14:15,  18; 
X5  :  5~8;    21:3,22;    and   formulate  the    points  of  difference  which 
appear. 

4.  Study  the  origin  and  development  of  the  synagogue,  noting  (a) 
its  relation  to  the  temple,  (b)  the  different  character  of  its  services  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  temple,  (c)  its  origin  in  response  to  a  great 
religious  need,  and  (*/)  its  historical  significance  as  the  forerunner  of 
the  church,  the  Christian    place  of    worship.     See,  e.  g.,  Ezek.  8  :  i ; 
20  :  1-3  ;  Ps.  74  :  8  ;    Matt.  9  :  35  ;   12:9;  Mark  5  :  35  ;    6  :  i  ff.;   Acts 
9  :  i  ff.;    13  :  13  ff.;    14  :  i  ;   17:1,  etc.5 

5.  Study  the  causes  which  led  to  the  building  of  the  Samaritan 

s See  article  "  Synagogue"  in  Encyclopedia  Bntannica;  E.  H.  PLUMPTRE,  article 
"Synagogue  "  in  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  428  ff.;  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (see  Index,  s.  v. 
"  Synagogue  ") ;  SCHURER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  Div. 
II,  Vol.  I,  pp.  52-83 ;  EDERSHEIM,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
430-50 ;  FERGUSON,  The  Synagogue  Service  in  the  Time  of  Christ;  KENT,  A  History 
of  the  Jewish  People  (see  Index}. 


82  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

temple  on  Mount  Gerizim.  Was  this  movement  a  source  of  strength 
or  of  weakness  to  the  Jewish  community  in  Jerusalem  ?  What  was  the 
attitude  of  Jesus  toward  the  Samaritan  temple  ?  See,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  chap. 
4;  Neh.  2:18-20;  4:1-23;  6:  1-19;  13:28;  John  4:i9~24  (</•  §45)- 

6.  Consider  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the  change  of  view  as  to 
the  function  of  the  place  of  worship  seen  in  the  fact  that  originally  a 
temple  was  looked  upon  as  the  abode  of  the  deity,  while  now  it  is 
regarded  primarily  as  a  meeting-place  for  worshipers. 

7.  Make  a  special  study  of  Hezekiah's  reform  (see  2  Kings  18:  3-7, 
22;  cf.  2  Chron.  29:3 — 31:20;  32:12),  considering  (i)  the  question 
concerning  the  age  of  the  narratives;  (2)  the  preparation  for  such  a 
reform  prior  to  Hezekiah's  time ;  (3)  the  suggestion  that  the  reform 
followed,  rather  than  preceded,  Sennacherib's  invasion ;  (4)  the  prob- 
able relation  of  Isaiah  to  the  reform  movement;  (5)  the  influence  of 
such  an  attempt  in  preparing  the  way  for  a  later  reform. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  Prophets  of  Israel,  p.  363  ;  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  607  f .,  623;  RENAN,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  Vol.  II,  p.  518;  CHEYNE, 
Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  p.  365  ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel,  p.  23;  STADE,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  8  ff.;  VI,  pp.  170  ff.;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  355  ff.;  CHEYNE, 
article  "  Hezekiah,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  McCLYMONT,  article  "  Heze- 
kiah,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  and  the  commentaries  on  Kings  by  KITTEL,  BENZINGER, 
and  SKINNER. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    LAWS    AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  SACRIFICE,  CONSIDERED  COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§83.  Sacrifice  in  the  Early  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code,  (b}  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E,  (c)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  and  (d]  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i). 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings.1 

Gen.  28  : 18  ;  35:14;  Exod.  8  :  20  f.;  10 : 24  ff.;  18  : 12  ;  20  :  24  ;  24  :  5  ; 
Judg.  6:26;  i  Sam.  i  o :  8 ;  21:6;  i  Kings  3:4;  12:  26-33  ;  2  Kings 
16: 12  f.;  Isa.  1:11-13;  Hos.  4:13;  9:4;  11:2. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 

Gen.  4:3;  15  :  9  ff.;  8  :  20  ff.;  22  : 1-13  ;  28  : 18  ;  35  : 14  ;  Exod.  20  :  24; 
Numb.  23  :  1-4,  14;  Judg.  13  : 16-19 ;  6:18-24,26;  i  Sam.  7:9  f.; 
21 :6  ;  i  Kings  8  :  5. 

3.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Exod.  34:  25  ;  23  :i8;  Numb.  23  : 1-4,  14  ;  i  Sam.  2  : 13-17  ;  2  Sam. 
6:13;  i  Kings  1 8  :  30-38 ;  2  Kings  1 6 : 1 2  f . 

4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 

Gen.  46:1^;  Exod.  23:15^;  34:20^,-  Numb.  23:1-4,  14;  Judg. 
6:18-24;  13:16-19;  i  Sam.  i:3ff.;  6:15;  7:gf.;  11:15;  20:29; 
2  Sam.  6:  13,  17  f.;  24:22-25;  i  Kings  8  :  5  ;  18:30-38. 

5.  Sacrifice  was  often  a  social  or  family  meal. 

Gen.  1 8  :  1-8  ;  31  :  54  ;  Exod.  18:12;  Numb.  22  :  40  ;  Deut.  27  :  6b,  7  ; 
i  Sam.  i :  3  ff.;  9:  12  f.;  16  :  2,  5  ;  20:  29. 

6.  Human  sacrifice  was  not  unknown. 
Gen.  22:1-13;  Hos.  I3:2(?). 

7.  Sacrifice  to  idols  was  common. 

Exod.  32:6;  i  Kings  12:26-33;  2  Kings  5:i7(?);  10:19,  24  f.; 
Hos.  4:13;  ii  :  2. 

8.  The  priest  was  given  a  share  of  the  sacrifice, 
i  Sam.  2  :  13-17. 

•The  following  are  J-references :  Gen.  4:3;  8:20  ff.;  18:1-8;  35:14;  Exod. 
8  :20  f.;  34  :  20r,  25  ;  Numb.  23  : 1-4,  14  (?);  Deut.  27  :  66,  ^  (?).  The  following  are 
E-references :  Gen.  15:9  ff.;  22:1-13,  28:18;  31:54;  46  :  l&  ;  Exod.  10:  24  ff.; 
18:12;  20:24;  23:15*:,  18;  24:5;  32:6;  Numb.  22:40. 

83 


84  PRIKSTLY    ELEMENT   IN   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

9.  The  prophets'  attitude  toward  sacrifice. 

Amos   4:4*-;   5:22-25;   Hos.   3:4;  4:13,19;   6:6;    8:13;   9:4; 
11:2;  13:  2  ;  Isa.  i  :  11-13  !  34  :  6. 

§  84.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What  were  the  various  kinds  of  offerings  made  in  this  period  ? 
What  significance  attached  to  each  kind  —  for  example,  what  was  the 
meaning  of  the  burnt-offering  ?  of  the  peace-offering  ?  of  the   pass- 
over  offering  ?    Consider  to  what  extent  (a)  sacrifice  in   this  period 
was  equivalent  to  a  social  meal ;  (£)  the  eating  of  meat  was  a  sacrificial 
act ;  (c)  the  spirit  of  joy  accompanied  the  act. 

2.  Note  the  kinds  of  material  used  in  sacrifice,  for  example,  the 
flesh  of  animals  (what  animals?  animals  of  what  age?),  oil,  wine, 
meal.     What  was  the  reason  underlying  the  use  of  each  of  these  kinds 
of  material  ? 

3.  Why  was  leavened  bread  not  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a 
sacrifice  ?     Why  was  no  part  of  the  sacrifice  to  be  left  over  until  the 
morning  of  the  following  day?     What    points   concerning   sacrifice 
may  be  noted  in  connection  with  Balaam's  sacrifice  (Numb.  23  :  1-4, 
14,  27-30)?     Consider  the  custom  of  the  priests  in  Samuel's  time,  and 
what  it  involved.     Study  Elijah's  sacrifice  on  Gilgal,  and   note  the 
bearing  of  the  details  on  the  subject. 

4.  Upon  what  occasion,  and  under  what  circumstances,  were  sacri- 
fices offered  ?     What  purpose  lay  in  the  mind  of  the  offerer  ?     What 
was  sought  for  in  the  act  ? 

5.  When  sacrifice  was  only  a  social   or  family  meal,  what  was  the 
religious  element  ?     Was  the   deity  ever  thought  to  partake  of  the 
meal  ?     Was  the  deity  ever  supposed   to   be  related   to  the  family  ? 
What  was  the  connection  between  this  social  act  and  the  spirit  of  joy 
which,  in  early  times,  seems  to  have  characterized  the  act  of  sacrifice  ? 

6.  Consider  the  willingness  of  Abraham  to  sacrifice  his  son  Isaac, 
and  what  was  involved  in  this  willingness  ?     Explain  to  yourself  the 
custom  of  human  sacrifice ;  how  could   it  have  arisen  ?  what  wrong 
ideas  did  it  rest  upon  ? 

7.  Note  some  of  the  instances   in  which  sacrifice  was  offered  to 
idols.     Since  the  idols  were  believed  to  represent  deities,  either  that 
of  Israel  or  those  of  other  nations,  was  this  not  something  clearly  to 
have  been  expected  ? 

8.  Note  that  in  this   period   the  priest,  whatever   other   kind    of 
support  he  may  have  received,  was  given  a  share  of  the  sacrifice. 

9.  Formulate  a  statement  containing  the  substance  of  the  prophet's 


LAWS   AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  85 

attitude  toward  sacrifice ;  and  consider  whether  the  prophet  was 
opposing  (a)  the  act  of  sacrifice  itself;  or  (b)  a  cold,  indifferent,  hypo- 
critical spirit,  with  which  men  in  those  days  had  become  accustomed 
to  offer  sacrifice;  or  (c]  the  feeling,  which  had  become  quite  general, 
that  sacrifice  was  enough  to  gain  Jehovah's  pleasure,  that  this  was  all 
that  he  expected,  and  that  this,  without  reference  to  conduct,  con- 
stituted religion. 

§85.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  sacrifice  in  the 
early  period,  embodying  the  material  presented  above. 

§  86.  Sacrifice  in  the  Middle  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  the  laws 
of  Deuteronomy,  in  the  Deuteronomic  prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuter- 
onomic  portions  of  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings.2 

Deut.  12  :  4-7,  16;  Mic.  6  :  6-8  ;  Jer.  17  :  26;  33  :  n,  18. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 

Deut.  16  :  2-4  ;  Mic.  6  :  6-8  ;  Jer.  6  :  20  ;  Isa.  43  :  23  ff.;   i  Sam.  2  :  27. 

3.  Manner  of  offering. 

Deut.  12  :  27;  16  :  7;  Jer.  33  :  18 ;   I  Sam.  2  :  27. 

4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  offerings. 
Deut.  16  :  2-4  ;   i  Sam.  3:14;  Jer.  33  :  1 1. 

5.  Social  element  in  sacrifice. 
Deut.  12  :  4-14  ;   i  Kings  3:15. 

6.  Slaughter  and  sacrifice  are  no  longer  synonymous  terms. 
Deut.  12  :  15,  20-28. 

7.  Priest's  portion  of  the  sacrifice. 
Deut.  18  : 3,  4  ;   i  Sam.  2  :  28,  36. 

8.  Human  sacrifice  still  existed. 
Mic.  6 :  6-8. 

9.  Prophets'  attitude  toward  sacrifice. 

Zeph.  i  :7,  8;  Mic.  6:6-8  ;  Jer.  6:20  ;  7:  21  £.,29;  17:26;  33  : 11,18  ; 
46  : 10  ;  Isa.  43  123  f. 

§87.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Note  in  Deut.   12:4-7  (a)  tne  kinds  of  offerings    mentioned 
(including  tithe,  heave-offering,  free-will  offering),  and  (b)   the  spirit 
of  rejoicing  in  which  these  offerings  are  to  be  made.     Consider  in 
Mic.  6  :  6-8  (a)  the  possibilities  of  sacrifice  (including  that  of  one's  own 
child),  (b}  the  purpose  of  sacrifice,  and  (c)  the  requirement  of  Jehovah. 

2.  Consider  the  materials  used  in  sacrifice,  as  mentioned  in  passages 
2  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteronomy. 


86  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

cited  above,  and  note  any  variations  in  comparison  with  those  used  in 
the  earlier  age. 

3.  Consider  (a)  the  use  made  of  the  blood ;  its  pouring  on  the  altar ; 
(l>)  the  roasting  of  the  flesh  ;  (c)  the  eating  of  the  flesh ;  (d)  the  employ- 
ment of  men  "to  burn  meal-offerings  and  to  do  sacrifice." 

4.  Consider  the  connection  of  the  Passover  with  the  going-up  of 
Israel   out  of   Egypt,  (a)  in  relation  to  time  (was  there  not  a  spring 
feast  celebrated  by  the  ancient  nations  before  the  exodus  ?) ;    (b)  in 
relation  to  ceremony  (why  was  unleavened  bread  to  be  used  ?) ;   (c)  in 
relation  to  the  purpose  of  the  act.     Was  the  sacrifice   intended    to 
purge  or  purify  from   sin  ?     Was  sacrifice   intended   also  to    be   an 
expression  of  gratitude  for  some  favor  already  received  ? 

5.  Is  the  social  element  still  to  be  seen  in  this  period,  that  is,  does 
the  family  or  clan  meal,  with  all  its  social  accompaniments,  constitute 
a  sacrifice  ? 

6.  What  new  distinction  has  arisen  as  between  the  slaughter  of  ani- 
mals and  the  act  of  sacrifice  ?     Wherein  does  the  distinction  consist? 
What  led  to  the  making  of  the  distinction  ?     What,  naturally,  will 
follow  as  a  result  of  making  this  distinction  ? 

7.  Note  (a)  the  particular  portions  of  each  animal  sacrificed,  which 
are  assigned  as  the  portion  of  the  priest,  that  is,  for  his  maintenance; 
(&)  the  additional  perquisites  he  receives  in  the  way  of  grain,  oil,  wine, 
and  meal ;  and  (c}  the  ground  for  these  gifts. 

8.  What  evidence  is  there  that  in  this  period  human  beings  are  still 
used  for  sacrifice  ? 

9.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the  prophets  of  this  period  toward  sac- 
rifice, and  determine  (see  §84,  9)  the  real  meaning  of  this  attitude. 

§88.  Constructive  Work. — Prepare  a  statement  which  will  contain, 
in  some  detail,  the  differences  between  the  usages  of  the  middle  period 
in  respect  to  sacrifice,  and  those  of  the  early  period. 

§89.  Sacrifice  as  Presented  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings. 

Ezek.  40:39;  42:13;  46:12;  45:13-17;  20:40. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  44:15:  46:4-7- 

3.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Ezek.  40:38-43;  44:11,  15  ;  46:4-15,  24. 

4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  46:4-15;  43:18-27;  45:13-25. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  87 

5.  Sacrifice  was  still  thought  of  as  a  banquet. 
Ezek.  39  : 1 7-20  ;  46  :  24. 

6.  Sacrifice  was  still  offered  to  idols. 
Ezek.  20:28-31. 

7.  Human  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  16:20  f.;  23  139. 

8.  Priests  retained  a  share  of  the  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  42 : 13. 

§90.  Constructive  Work. —  Consider  the  various  allusions  to  sacri- 
fice in  Ezekiel,  under  the  topics  suggested  above,  and  prepare  a 
statement  covering  (a)  the  points  of  resemblance  and  difference  in 
comparison  with  the  facts  of  the  early  and  middle  periods ;  (b)  the  more 
formal  and  official  character  with  which  sacrifice  seems  to  be  invested 
by  Ezekiel ;  (c}  the  exceedingly  elaborate  system  of  sacrifice  provided 
for,  e.  g.,  in  46  14-15  ;  (d)  the  fact  that,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the 
earlier  idea  of  sacrifice  as  a  banquet  still  exists  (39  : 17-20  ;  46  :  24). 

§91.  Sacrifice  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  (b)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  (c}  in  the 
priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings.3 

Lev.  7:  x,  xi ;  6  :  9,  14,  25  ;  8 :  22  ;  23:  lob,  n,  13  ;  Exod.  25  :  30;  30  :  7 ; 
Numb.  15  :ig  ;  5  :  11-31. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 

Lev.  i  :  1-3,  10,  14  ;  2  :  x,  4  f.,  7,  xx,  13-15  ;  3  :  x,  3  1,  6  f.,  gf.,  12,  14  f., 
16  f.;  5  :  6  f.,  ii  ;  6 : 1-7,  15,  igf.;  7  :  3-5,  n  ff.;  g  :  1-4  ;  12  :  6-8  ;  14: 10, 
49  ;  24  :  5-9  ;  Numb.  15  :  1-21  ;  Exod.  29  :  1-3,  22  f .,  38-42  ;  Numb., 
chap.  28  ;  Exod.  30  :  34-38  ;  Lev.  22  :  18-25,  27  f-i  23;  10^-14. 

3.  The  fat  and  blood  are  regarded  as  especially  sacred. 
Lev.  7  :  22-27  I  8  :  15,  23  f.;  g  :  ig-2i  ;  17  :  6  ;  etc. 

4.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Lev.  i  :  3-g,  11-13,  i5~»7  '•>  a  :  i  f.,  4-16 ;  3  : 1-17  ;  4  : 1-35  ;  5  :  8  f.,  12 ; 
6:1-7,  8-13.  14-18,  ig-23,  24-30  ;  7  :  i  ff.,  11-21;  8:14-30;  g:8-n, 
12-14,  15-24;  14:10-32,  49-53;  16:3-28;  24:5-9;  Numb.  5  : 11-31; 
19  :  1-22  ;  Exod.  2g  :  10-42  ;  30:  7-10  ;  Lev.  22  :  29  f.;  ig  :  5-8. 

5.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 

Lev.  4  :  1-3,  13  f.,  20,  22-28,  31,  35  ;    5:  1-6,  13-15,  17-19  ;  6  :  1-7,  30  ; 
9:7;    12  : 6-8  ;    14  :  20,  31,  53  ;    15  :  13-15,  28-30  ;    23  :  106-21  ;  Numb. 
5 : 11-31 ;  15 : 17-21,  22-28 ;  19  : 1-22 ;  chap.  28  ;  Exod.  30: 7-10. 
3  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


88  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  The  priests'  share  of  the  sacrifice. 

Lev.  2:3,  10 ;  5:13;  6:16-18,26,29;  7:6-10,141*8-38;  8:31;  10:12- 
20;  Numb.  5:5-10;  Exod.  29:27-32;  Numb.  18:8-20. 

7.  All  slaughter  is  sacrificial. 
Lev. 17: 1-9. 

8.  Few  references  to  idolatrous  sacrifices. 
Lev.  17:7. 

9.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  sacrifice. 

Isa.  19:  21 ;  56:7;  66:  3  ;  Mai.  I  :  7-9;  3:3-5  ;  Joel  1:9,  13:2:14; 
Dan.  9 : 27. 

10.  Sacrifice  is  given  a  large  place  in  the  later  histories. 

i  Chron.  15  :  26  ;  16:  i  ;  21  126  ff.;  29  :  21  £.;  2  Chron.  1:5  ;  2:4  ;  5:6; 
7  :  4  ff.;  8:  I2f.;  11:16;  13:11;  15:11;  24  114;  29:20-36;  30: 15ff.; 
3i:2ff.;  33:i6f.;  Ezras:  2  ff.;  6:17;  7:17;  8:35;  10:19;  Neh. 
io:33f.;  12:43!. 

11.  Prominence  of  the  idea  of  sin  in  connection  with  sacrifice. 
Lev.  4:35;  chap.  16;  9:3;  io:i6ff.;  Numb.  15:22-31;  19:1-9. 

§92.  Questions  and  Suggestions. —  How  much  in  detail  the  various 
topics  concerning  sacrifice  in  the  later  period  shall  be  taken  up  will  be 
determined  in  some  measure  by  one's  archaeological  interests.  In  any 
case,  these  topics  deserve  consideration  because  of  their  sociological,  as 
well  as  their  religious,  bearing  : 

1.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  offerings,  viz.,  burnt-offering, 
peace-offering,  sin-offering,  etc.,  including  vows,  the  offering  involved 
in  Naziritism,  the  offering  of  purification.     From  the  passages  describ- 
ing each,  and  from  a  study  of  the  name  (in  English  and,  if  possible, 
in  Hebrew),  differentiate  these  various  offerings  from  each  other  and 
determine  what  was  distinctly  characteristic  in  each  case.     Consider, 
now,  whether  any  principle  of  classification  exists  ;  e.  g. :  (a)  Are  they, 
in  each  case,  voluntary  or  obligatory?     (ft)  Are  they,  in  each  case, 
self-dedicatory,  eucharistic,  or  expiatory?     Suggest  any  other  possible 
bases  for  classification. 

2.  Take  up,  one  by  one,  the  materials  which  might  be  used  in  sac- 
rifice, noting,  (a)  in  reference  to  animal  offerings:    (i)  the  particular 
animals  which  were  deemed  acceptable ;  (2)  the  possible  explanations  of 
the  selection  of  these  animals  with  the  rejection  of  others  ;  (3)  whether 
the  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  animals4  was  in  any  way 
connected  with  the  choice  for  sacrifice  ;    (b)  in  reference  to  vegetable 

4  Cf.  Lev.,  chap.  1 1  ;  Deut.  14  :  3-21  ;  and  see  G.  A.  SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and 
Unclean,"  §8,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  and  chap.  x. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  89 

offerings:  (i)  the  particular  vegetables  authorized ;  (2)  the  reason  or 
reasons  for  this  selection  ;  (<r)  the  character  of  offerings  worthy  of  being 
accepted ;  (</)  other  possible  gifts  outside  of  animals  and  vegetables, 
e.  g.,  one's  hair,5  one's  virginity,6  one's  blood;7  (<?)  objects  connected 
more  or  less  closely  with  sacrifice,  e.  g.,  wine,  incense,  salt,  oil,  blood, 
fat,  leaven,  honey;  (/)  the  meaning  or  significance  of  each  kind  of 
material  as  employed  in  sacrifice. 

3.  Note  the  particularly  important  emphasis  placed  upon  the  use  of 
the  blood  and  fat,  and  consider  what  was  involved  in  this,  and  the 
principle  underlying  it. 

4.  Study,  in  detail,  the  method  of  sacrifice,  viz.,  (a)  the  ceremonial 
of  the  animal  sacrifice  which  included  (i)  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  presentation  of  the  victim,  e.  g.,  the  laying  on  of  hands,  the 
time,  the  place,  (2)  the  slaughter,  (3)  the  use  made  of  the  blood,  (4) 
the  flaying  of  the  animal  and  its  dissection,  (5)  the  burning,  (6)  the 
washing,  (7)  the  waving  and  heaving,  (8)  the  sacrificial  meal;  (fr)  the 
ceremonial,  in  similar  fashion,  of  the  vegetable  offering;    (c)  the  cere- 
monial of  the  drink-offering ;  (d}  the   distinction  involved  between 
burning   the   offering   and   eating    it;    (e)   the   distinction    involved 
between  consuming  all  and  only  a  portion. 

5.  Study  the  occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice  as  it  appears  in  the 
later  period,  considering  (a)  how  far  it  is  national,  i.  e.,  offered  for  the 
nation  as  a  whole   (cf.  Exod.  29:38-42;    Numb.   28:9 — 29:6);  (b) 
how  far  it  is  official,  i.  e.,  offered  for  certain  officers  of  the  state,  the 
priest,  or  the  ruler  (cf.  Numb.  4:  22-26);  (c)  how  far  it  is  individual, 
i.  e.,  offered  for  the  ordinary  man  as  an  individual ;  (d]  how  far  it 
is  festal,  i.  e.,  associated  with  feasts,  e.  g.,  the  Passover,  the  Feast  of 
Harvest ;  (e)  how  far  it  is  extraordinary,  i.  e.,  connected  with  special 
rather   than    regularly  recurring    events;    (/)  how  far  it  is  local  or 
centralized,  i.  e.,  offered  where  one  chanced  to  be,  or  at  some  place 
selected  from  all  other  places,  and  authorized  as  the  proper  and  only 
proper  place ;  (g)  how  far  it  is,  in  this  period,  a  gift  or  offering,  rather 
than  the  payment  of  a  demand  or  of  something  due. 

6.  Put  together  the  various  elements  which  made  up  the  priest's 

s See  Lev.  19:27;  21:5;  cf.  Jer.  7:29,  and  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the 
Semites,  2d  ed.,  pp.  323-35. 

6Cy.  i  Kings  14:24;  15:12;  22:47;  2  Kings  23:7;  NOWACK,  Hebrdische 
Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  132  f.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  (he  Semites,  pp.  454  ff.; 
FRAZER,  Golden  Bough,  Vol.  II,  pp.  225  ff. 

'C/.Ps.  50  : 13  ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (see  Index,  s.  v.  "Blood"); 
H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  The  Blood  Covenant. 


QO  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

due,  and  consider  whether  (a)  upon  the  whole  he  was  properly  repaid 
for  his  services,  (£)  he  deserved  any  longer  to  be  classed  with  the 
widow  and  orphan,  as  in  Deuteronomy. 

7.  Note  that  all  slaughter  of  animals  for    purposes  of  eating  is 
sacrificial ;    that   every   animal    must    be    formally    presented    at   the 
appointed  place;  and  that  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted   upon   those 
who  do  not  recognize  this  fact. 

8.  Observe  that  offerings  to  idols  have  almost  fallen  into  disuse. 

9.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the  later  prophets  toward  sacrifice;  are 
they  hostile  ?  or  indifferent  ? 

10.  Make  a  list  of  the  events  narrated  in  the  later  histories  with 
which  sacrifice  is  connected,  and  note  (a)  how  large  a  place  sacrifice  is 
given  ;  (<£)  how  much   more  frequently  the  priest-writers  recount  the 
act  of  sacrifice  than  do  the  prophetic  writers  of  Samuel  and  Kings;  (c) 
the  significance  of   this  in  connection  with   the  greater  importance 
attached  to  sacrifice  in  this  later  period. 

11.  Consider   (a)  the  intimate  connection,  whether  expressed    or 
implied,  between  all  this  detail  of  ceremonial  and  the  idea  of  sin;  (&) 
the  intimate  connection  between  the  idea  of  sin  thus  expressed  and  the 
conception  of  God  which  had  come  to  exist  in  this  period ;  (c)  the 
suggestive  fact  that,  side  by  side  with  this  objective  expression  of  the 
appreciation  of  sin  and  of  longing  for  communion   with  God,  there 
should  have  been  written  so  many  of  the  psalms,  which  express  sub- 
jectively and  spiritually  the  same  idea. 

§93.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  present 
in  the  form  of  a  summary  the  essential  differences  between  the  later 
and  preceding  periods  in  reference  to  sacrifice,  including  (a)  the 
chief  points  of  practice,  and  (b}  the  essential  principles  involved. 

§  94.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

J.  H.  KURTZ,  Sacrificial  Worship  of  the  Old  Testament  (1863);  ALFRED  BARRY, 
articles  "  Sacrifice,"  "  Sin-Offering,"  "  Meat-Offering,"  "  Burnt-Offering,"  etc.,  in 
SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1863);  EWALD,  The  Antiquities  of Israel  (3d  ed.  1866, 
transl.  1876),  pp.  23-111;  KALISCH,  Commentary  on  Leviticus  (1867-72),  Part  I,  pp. 
1-416;  Part  II,  pp.  9,  217  ff.,  290  ff.;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl. 
1874  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  236  £.;  OEHLER,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1870,  transl.  1883),  pp. 
261-323;  TYLOR,  Primitive  Culture  (1874),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  SAYCE, 
"On  Human  Sacrifice  among  the  Babylonians,"  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archeology,  Vol.  IV  (1876),  pp.  25-31 ;  E.  PARK,  "  On  the  Question  of  the  Divine 
Institution  of  Sacrifice,"  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1876,  pp.  102-32  ;  A.  CAVE,  The  Scriptural 
Doctrine  of  Sacrifice  and  Atonement '(1877) ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel  (1878),  pp.  52-82  ;  R.  COLLINS,  "An  Essay  on  Sacrifice,"  in  The  Pulpit  Com- 
mentary on  Leviticus  (1882),  pp.  i-xiv;  ALFRED  CAVE.  "The  Levitical  Sacrifices 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  9 1 

Literally  Considered,"  in  The  Pulpit  Commentary  on  Leviticus  (1882),  pp.  i-xxxi; 
H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  The  Blood  Covenant  ( 1885),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Sacrifice  ;"  LEIGHTON, 
The  Jewish  Altar  (1886);  A.  HOVEY,  "Shekkar  and  Leaven  in  Mosaic  Offerings," 
Old  Testament  Student,  1886,  pp.  Il-l6;  H.  CROSBY,  "The  Sacrifices,"  Old  Testament 
Student,  1886,  pp.  249  f.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Sacrifice"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(1887);  SAYCE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  pp. 
77-82;  F.  GARDINER,  "On  the  Reason  for  the  Selection  of  Certain  Animals  for  Sacri- 
fice," Journal  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis,  1 888,  pp.  146-50; 
W.  H.  WARD,  "On  Some  Babylonian  Cylinders,  Supposed  to  Represent  Human 
Sacrifices,"  Proceedings  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  May,  1888,  pp.  xxviii-xxx; 
KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews  (1888-92,  transl.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice  ;" 
W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (ist  ed.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  pp.  213-340; 
ROBERTSON,  Early  Religion  of  Israel  (1889),  see  index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  P.  A. 
NORDELL,  "  Old  Testament  Word-Studies :  7.  Sacrifice  and  Worship,"  Old  Testament 
Student,  Vol.  VIII  (1889),  pp.  257  ff.;  W.  M.  RODWELL,  The  Mosaic  Sacrifices  in 
Lev.  /-///(iSgo);  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacri- 
fice;" DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1891-1900),  see  Indices  to  Vols.  I  and  II; 
TH.  E.  SCHMAUCK,  "The  Paschal  Lamb,"  Lutheran  Church  Review,  1891,  pp. 
127-63;  C.  J.  BALL,  "Glimpses  of  Babylonian  Religion.  I:  Human  Sacrifices," 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,  Vol.  XIV  (1892),  pp.  149-53; 
MONTEKIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index;  H.  B.  TRISTRAM, 
"Sacrifices  in  Babylonia  and  Phrenicia,"  Sunday  School  Times,  1894,  No.  I  ;  H.  C. 
TRUMBULL,  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Z*/<?(i894),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  A. 
HARPER,  "The  Prophets  and  Sacrifice,"  Expositor,  1894,  pp.  241-53;  T.  K. CHEYNE, 
"  The  Date  and  Origin  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Scapegoat,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttesta- 
mentliche  Wissenschaft,  1895,  PP-  '53-6;  PH.  J.  HOEDEMAKER,  "The  Atonement 
Money,"  The  Thinker,  1895  ;  A.  A.  BERLE,  "  The  Real  Meaning  of  Semitic  Sacrifice," 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1895,  PP-  342~6;  MENZIES,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index, 
s.  v,  "Sacrifice;"  TRUMBULL,  The  Threshold  Covenant ( 1896), see  Index, s.  v.  "Sacri- 
fice;" WlEDEMANN,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Offerings;"  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Sacrifices;"  A.  FAIRBANKS,  "The  Significance  of  Sacrifice  in  the  Homeric  Poems," 
The  New  World,  June,  1898,  pp.  335-48;  A.  F.  SCOT,  Offering  and  Sacrifice:  An 
Essay  in  Comparative  Customs  and  Religious  Development  (1899);  TRUMBULL,  The 
Covenant  of  Salt  (1899),  pp.  83-96;  Bovs-SMiTH,  "Sacrifice  in  Ancient  Religion 
and  in  Christian  Sacrament,"  Expository  Times,  December,  1899;  January,  1900; 
S.  R.  DRIVER,  article  "Offer,  Offering,  etc.,"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(1900);  GAST,  "  Idea  of  Sacrifice  as  Developed  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Reformed 
Church  Review,  January,  1900;  HERMANN  SCHULTZ,  "The  Significance  of  Sacrifice 
in  the  Old  Testament,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV  (1900),  pp.  257-313; 
DAVIS,  "  The  Sin-Offering,"  Bible  Student,  February,  1900 ;  EDWARD  DAY,  The  Social 
Life  of  the  Hebrews  (1901),  pp.  39-46;  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monu- 
ments (1895-1901),  §§  738,  1006  f.,  1014  ;  D.  McKENZlE,  Exposition  of  Old  Testament 
Sacrifice  (1901). 

V.  THALHOFER,  Die  unblutigen  Opfer  des  mosaischen  Cultus  (1848);  HENG- 
STENBERG,  Die  Opfer  der  heiligen  Schrift  (1852);  RlEHM,  "Ueber  das  Schuldopfer," 
Theol.  Studien  und Kritiken,  1854,  pp.  93-121;  S.  W.  RlNCK,  "Ueber  das  Schuldop- 
fer," Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1855,  pp.  369-81;  A.  STOECKL,  Das  Opfer,  nach 


92  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

seinem  Wesen  und seiner  Geschichte  (1860);  OEHLER,  revised  by  VON  ORELLI,  article 
"Opferkultus  des  A.  T.'s,"  Real-Encyklopddie  fur  protestantische  Theol.  und  Kirche 
(ad  ed.,  1883);  MENANT,  "Les  sacrifices  sur  les  cylindres  chalde"ens,"  Gazette 
archtologique,  1883,  Nos.  7-9;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  article  "Opfer"  in  RIEHM'S 
Handwbrterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  des  arabischen 
Heidenthums  (1887),  pp.  110-28;  STADE,  Geschickte  des  Volkes  Israel (1887  f.),Vol.  I, 
pp.  492-8;  Vol.  II,  pp.  253-64;  L.  GLAHN,  "Soningen  i  den  gammeltestamentlige 
Offerkultus,"  Festskrift  Borcks  Colleg.,  pp.  281-3  (1889);  FRIEDR.  NlTZSCH,  Die  Idee 
und  die  Stufen  des  Opferkultus  (1889) ;  C.  PIEPENBRING,  "  Histoire  des  lieux  de  culte 
et  du  sacerdoce  en  Israel,"  Revue  de  Fhistoire  des  religions,  1891,  pp.  l-6o,  133-86; 
TH.  NAVILLE,  Les  sacrifices  Uvitiques  et  r expiation  (1891);  A.  SCHMOLLER,  "Das 
Wesen  der  Siihne  in  der  alttestl.  Opferthora,"  Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1891,  pp. 
205-88;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestl.  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899), 
pp.  138-45;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp.  203- 
75;  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp.  431-64  ;  P.  SCHANZ,  "  Der  Opfer- 
begriff,"  Theol.  Quartalschrift,  1894,  PP-  179-222;  G.  A.  SIEGRIST,  L'idJe  du  sacrifice 
dans  TA.  T.  (1894)  5  DILLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestl.  TJteologie(iSg$),see  Index,*,  v. 
"Opfer;"  STADE,"Die  ~E\krovteT\hor&"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  altlestl.  Wissenschaft,^^, 
pp.  166-78  ;  KAMPHAUSEN,  Das  Verhdltnis  des  Menschenopfers  zur  israelitischen  Reli- 
gton(i8<)6) ;  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelit.  Religion  (1897),  pp.  103-7,  22S~3l  J  LEVI, 
La  doctrine  du  sacrifice  dans  les  Brahmdnas  (1898);  G.  DE  ALVIELLA,  "La  the"orie  du 
sacrifice  et  les  recherches  de  Robertson  Smith,"  Revue  de  I'universite  de  Bruxelles, 
April,  1898;  M.  LAMBERT,  "Lemot  "flD*l,"  Journal  asiatique,Vo\.  XI  (1898),  pp. 
326  i.;  C.  SCHMIDT,  Die  Entwickelung  der  alttestamentlichen  Opferidee  (1899);  A. 
LOISY,  "Notes  sur  la  Genese.  VI:  Le  sacrifice  d'Isaac :  Gen.  22  : 1-19,"  Revue  de 
rhistoire  et  de  la  litterature  religieuses,  1899,  pp.  458-62;  P.  VOLZ,  "Die  Handauf- 
legungbeim  Opfer,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  1901 ;  LEFEBURE, 
"  Le  sacrifice  humain  d'apres  les  rites  de  Busiris  et  d'Abydos,"  Sphinx,  Vol.  Ill, 
No.  2;  CHWOLSON,  Die  Ssabier  und  der  Ssabismus,  (1856),  Vol.  II,  pp.  142-55. 

§95.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Study  the  principal  references  to  sacrifice  found  in  the  Psalter, 
e.  g.,  Pss.    4:5;  20:3;  40:6;  50:  5,  8-14,   23;  51  :  16  f.,   19;  54:6; 
56:12;  66:  13,  15;  96:8;   1 06:  28,   37  f.;   107  :  22  ;  1 16  :  17  ;  118  :  27  ; 
and  consider  (a)  the  attitude  in  general  of  these  song-writers ;  .(&)  how 
far  they  have  spiritualized  the  subject ;  (c)   the  relationship  between 
the  Levitical  ceremonial  and  the  spirit  of  the  Psalms. 

2.  What  did  the  sage  have  to  say  about  sacrifice  ?     Cf.  Job  1:5; 
22  :  27;  42  :  8f.;  Prov.  7  :  14;   15:8;  21:27;  Eccles.  9  :  2. 

3.  From  an  examination  of  the  books  of  Maccabees  —  e.  g.,  i  Mace. 
5  :  545  7  :33;   IJ  =  34;   12:11;   2  Mace,  i  :  8,   18,   23,  26,  31  ;   2  :<)&.; 
3  =  3,  6,32  ;  4:  14;  6:7;  9  :  16  ;   12  :  43  ;   13:  23;  14  :  31— determine 
the  spirit  in  which  sacrifices  were  offered  during  the  Maccabaean  period, 
and  note  any  changes  that  present  themselves. 

4.  Consider  the  subject  of  sacrifice  as  it  appears  in  the  epistle  to 


LAWS   AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  93 

the  Hebrews,  e.  g.,  Heb.  5  :  1-3  ;  7  :  26  f.;  9:6;   10  :  18,  26  ;    11:17; 
13  :  10-16. 

5.  Consider  the  meaning  and  usage  in  the  several  documents  of  the 
various  Hebrew  words  for  sacrifice,  viz.,  FQT  ;  HWa  ;  flbi3? ;  D^ablD  ; 

DITH  ;  -pnp ;  nKtafi ;  rrfim ;  rms ;  TO ;'"  msa :; '  rrarin ;  raw ; 

TT          IT    :'T  T  -  T  T  T:          Ivv  v   •  T         :  T        : 

b'ba. 

•    T 

Cf.  S.  R.  DRIVER,  article  "  Offer,  Offering,  Oblation,"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible. 

6.  Compare  the  usages  relating  to  sacrifice  among  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  difference  as 
compared  with  the  usages  of  the  Hebrews. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Sacrifice  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

7.  Compare  the  usages  relating  to  sacrifice  among  the  Assyrians, 
the  Arabs,  and  the  Canaanites,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  dif- 
ference as  compared  with  the  usages  of  the  Hebrews. 

See  especially  PAUL  HAUPT,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual," 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-81 ;  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  {Index,  s.  v.  "  Sacrifice  ");  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites;  L.  W. 
KING,  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythology,  pp.  210  ff.;  A.  H.  SAYCE,  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  pp.  245-9. 

8.  Consider  the  question  of  the  origin  of  sacrifice. 

See  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Sacrifice  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica;  A.  F.  SCOT, 
Offering  and  Sacrifice:  An  Essay  in  Comparative  Customs  and  Religious  Development. 

9.  Prepare  a  definition  of  sacrifice  which  may  be  considered  biblical. 

10.  Consider  the  teachings  inculcated  by  sacrifice,  and  whether  these 
teachings  (a)  constituted  the  purpose  and  end  of  the  Jewish  service, 
or  (fi)  pointed  to  something  beyond  and  above. 

11.  Consider  the  relation  of  sacrifice,  as  it  is  represented  in   the 
Old  Testament,  to  the  Christ  of  the  New  Testament. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS,    CONSIDERED   COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§96.  The  Feasts  of  Early  Times,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code ;  (b)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E ;  (c )  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings;  and  (</)  the 
pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §59,  note  i).1 

1.  The  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread.2 
Exod.  34  :  18  ;   23  :  15  ;   13:3-10. 

2.  The  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Exod.  34 : 22 ;  23 : i6a. 

3.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

Exod.  34:22£;   23:16^;    I   Kings  8:2,  65  f.;   12:32;  Judg.  9:27; 
21  :  19  ff. 

4.  There  were  three  feasts  at  which  attendance  was  required  by 
law. 

Exod.  34  : 23  f.;  23 : 14-17  ;  i  Kings  9:25;  I  Sam.  i  :  3. 

5.  The  feasts  were  connected  with  agriculture. 
Exod.  23: 15  f.;  34:22  ;  Judg.  21  .  19  ff. 

6.  The  feasts  were  always  of  a  joyous  and  social  character. 
Exod.  32  : 5  f.;  Judg.  21  : 19  ff.;  i  Sam.  i  :  3,  7,  13  ff. 

7.  A  feast  often  involved  a  pilgrimage  to  some  shrine. 
Exod.  10:9;  Judg.  1 1 : 40  (?) ;  i  Sam.  i  :  3,  7  ;  2:19. 

8.  The  Passover. 

Exod.  34  :  25  ;  12  :  21-27. 

9.  The  Feast  of  the  New  Moon. 

Hos.  5:7(?);  i  Sam.  2o:5f.;  1 8 : 24  ff.;  2  Kings  4  :  23. 

10.  Special  feasts  were  held,  e. g. :  the  Feast  of  Sheep-Shearing; 
the  Feast  of  Jephthah's  Daughter. 

i  Sam.  25:2;  2  Sam.  13:23;  Judg.  1 1  : 40. 

11.  Idolatrous  feasts. 

Exod.  32:  5  ;  i  Kings  12:  32  f.;  2  Kings  10:20. 

12.  Attitude  of  the  early  prophets  toward  the  feasts. 

Amos  5:21;  8  :  10;  Hos.  2:11;  5:7(?);  9:5;   12:9;  Isa.  I  :i3  f. 

1  The  following  references  are  from  J  :  Exod.  34  :  18-25  '»  I2  :  21-27  J  *3  :  3~IO; 
10  : 9  ;  the  following  are  from  E  :  Exod.  23  :  10-17  ;  32  :  5. 

"References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

94 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  95 

§97.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider,  in  connection  with  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread, 
(a)  the  duration ;  (b)  the  date  (to  what  part  of  our  year  did  Abib  cor- 
respond?); (c)  the  nature  and  significance  of " unleavened  bread;"  (d} 
the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  "none  shall  appear  before  me  empty;"  (e) 
the  association  of  this  feast  with  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  and  the  point 
of  connection ;  (/)  the  seeming  identification  of  two  entirely  different 
things,  viz.,  the  Passover  (see  below)  and  the   Feast  of   Unleavened 
Bread. 

2.  Consider,    in    connection   with   the  Eeast  of    Weeks,  (a)   other 
names  for  the  same  feast,  viz.,  Harvest,  First-Fruits  (Pentecost,  cf.  Acts 
2:1;  20:16;  i  Cor.  16:8);  (b)  the  duration  (cf.  Deut.  16:9-12);  (c) 
the  date ;  (</)  the  connection  of  this  feast  with  the  close  of  the  grain 
harvest;  (e)  the  fact  that  there  is  no  historical  mention  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  its  observance  (but   cf.   2  Mace.    12:32   and  the  New 
Testament  passages  indicated  above). 

3.  Consider,  in  connection  with  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  (a)  other 
names,  viz.,  Booths  (Deut.  16:13),  Ingathering;  (b}  the  duration  (cf. 
Deut.  1 6  : 13-15) ;  (c)  the  date,  late  in  the  autumn  ;  (d}  the  connection 
of  this  feast  with  the  completion  of  the  harvest  of  fruit,  oil,  and  wine; 
(e)  the  lack  of  any  specific  regulations  in  the  earlier  legislation ;  (/) 
the  fact  that  historical  mention  is  made  of  only  this  feast  among  the 
three  great  feasts  (i    Sam.  i  :  i  ff.;  i   Kings  12:32;  6:38);  (g)  the 
fact  that  this  feast  seems  to  have  had  its  origin  among  the  Canaan- 
ites  (Judg.  9  :  27);  (h}  the  important  religious  significance  involved  in 
the  idea  that  the  deity  was  the  lord  of  the  land  and  the  dispenser  of 
its  fruits. 

4.  Consider,  in  reference  to  these  meetings  for  festal  purposes,  (a) 
the  number;  (b)  the  distribution  of  these  throughout  the  year;  (c)  the 
class  of  persons  who  were  expected  to  be  present ;  (d]  the  meaning  of 
the  phrase  "appear  before  the  Lord ;  "  (e)  the  guarantee  given  of  safety 
upon  the  journeys  involved  in  attending  the  feasts;  (/)  the  custom  in 
Solomon's  times.    Are  any  places  mentioned  as  the  seats  of  a  festival  ? 

5.  To  what  extent  were  these  feasts  of  an  agricultural  character,  that 
is,  connected  with  agricultural  pursuits,  e.  g.,  harvest,  ingathering  of 
fruit,  etc.?  or  how  far  were  they  solar  feasts,  that  is,  connected  with 
certain  seasons  of  the  year?     What  was  the  usual  time  for  harvest  in 
Palestine?     When  did  the  end  of  the  Jewish  year  come,  and  with  what 
feast  was  it  connected  ?      Consider  the  connection   of  the   feast  at 
Shiloh  with  the  vineyards  near  at  hand.    What  particular  characteristics 


96  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

are  associated  with  agricultural  as  distinguished  from  historical  feasts  ? 
Would  the  climate,  for  example,  to  some  extent  determine  the  date  ? 
Would  the  harvest  feast  take  place  at  the  same  time  in  localities  in 
which  there  was  a  difference  of  two  or  three  weeks  in  the  period  of  the 
ripening  of  grain  ?  What  kind  of  feasts  would  be  expected  among 
people  leading  a  pastoral  life,  as  distinguished  from  an  agricultural 
life  ?  If  these  feasts  are  of  agricultural  origin,  could  Israel  have 
observed  them  before  becoming  an  agricultural  people,  that  is,  before 
settling  in  Canaan  ? 

6.  Are  not  harvest  and  vintage  feasts  generally  occasions  for  joy? 
Are  not  eating  and  drinking  and  dancing  the  usual  accompaniments 
of  a  feast?     How  far  did  the  idea  that  the  deity  was  sharing  in  the 
festivities  contribute  to  the  joyousness  of  the  occasion  ?     Did  not  the 
eating,  etc.,  contribute  to  this  end  ?      Was  not  the  very  purpose  a 
joyous  one?     Was  there  yet  any  conception  of  God  or  sin  such  as 
would  interfere  with  this  interpretation  ?     Was  there,  at  this  time,  any 
feeling  of  the  need  of  an  atonement  ? 

7.  (i)  Does  a  man  ordinarily  feast  by  himself  ?     (2)  If  the  social 
element  is  important,  would  it  be  necessary  to  have  places  at  which 
many  might  conveniently  come  together  ?     Would  this  not  necessarily 
involve  a  pilgrimage?     (3)    Consider  the  use  of  sacred  places,  like 
Shiloh,  for  such  meetings.     (4)  What  would  be  the  social  and  politi- 
cal influence  of  such  pilgrimages? 

8.  Consider  (i)  whether  the  Passover,  although  forming  a  part  of 
the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  is  not  treated  independently  of  that 
feast;  (2)  whether,  in  its  very  nature,  it  is  not  pastoral  (that  is,  of 
nomadic  origin),  rather  than  agricultural ;  (3)  the  meaning  of  the  name 
"Passover;"3  (4)  the  time  of  year  in  which  it  was  observed;  (5)  the 
evidence  in  Exod.  7  :  16  ;   10  :  24,  that  the  Hebrews  observed  a  spring 
festival  with  offerings  from  their  flocks  before  the  days  of  Moses ;  (6) 
the  original  significance  of  the  Passover,  viz.,  a  sacrificial   meal  in 
which  those  who  partook  united  themselves  more  closely  and  came 
into  closer  communion  with  their  God  —  all  this,  for  greater  security; 
(7)  the  connection  of  this  very  early  festival  at  a  later  time  (a)  with  the 
historical  event  of  the  exodus,  and  (b}  with  the  Feast  of  Mazzoth. 

*Cf.  article  "Passover"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible',  J.  MULLER,  Kri- 
tiscker  Versuch  uber  den  Ursprung  des  Pesach- Mazzothfestes  ;  NOWACK,  Hebrdische 
Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  147  ff.,  172  ff.;  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie,  pp.  470  ff.; 
RIEDEL,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttesiamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  319-32; 
STADE,  ibid.,  pp.  333-7;  C.  H.  TOY,  "The  Meaning  of  HOD,"  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  178  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  97 

9.  Is  the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon  agricultural,  or  rather  astronomi- 
cal ?    Is  it  recognized  in  the  earlier  legislation  ?    Consider  (i)  its  wide 
observance  among  Semitic  peoples;4  (2)  its  association  with  ancient 
family  sacrifices;  (3)  its  connection  with  the  sabbath;  (4)  its  possible 
use  by  prophets  as  a  time  for  religious  assembly;  (5)  its  mention  by 
the  prophets  (see  below);  (6)  its  great  antiquity. 

10.  Consider  the  Feast  of  Sheep-Shearing:  (i)  Was   not  this,  like 
the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon,  a  pastoral   rather  than   an   agricultural 
feast  ?    (2)  Was  it  recognized  in  legislation  ?    (3)  Could  it  be  observed 
elsewhere  than  in  a  cattle-producing   portion   of  the  country?     (4) 
How  late  in  Israel's  history  does  it  appear  to  have  come  down  ?     (5) 
Did  it  ever  take  on  any  special  religious  significance  ?     (6)  What,  in 
general,  did  it  celebrate  ?     Consider  the  mourning-feast  in  connec- 
tion with  the  devotion  of  Jephthah's  daughter  to  a  life  of  perpetual 
virginity,  and  compare  the  similar  cases  in  other  history.5 

11.  Notice  how  special  feasts  are  celebrated  in  addition  to  those 
which  became  authorized,  as  in  the  case  of  (i)  Aaron  and  the  calf,  (2) 
Jeroboam  at  Bethel,  (3)  Jehu  in  honor  of  Baal. 

12.  Consider  now  the  place  occupied  in  the  religious  life  by  these 
feasts,  and  their  influence :  (i)  To  what  extent  did  the  feasts  consti- 
tute the  religion  of  the  people  ?     (2)  How  far  would  men  postpone 
religious  observances  until  the  time  of  a  feast  ?     (3)  How  much  store 
did  the  ordinary  Israelite  set  by  the  feasts  ?    Would  the  threat  of 
their  extinction  disturb  him  ?      (4)   In  what  way  would  such  feasts 
serve  to  develop  national  feeling  ?  to  provide  an  education  for  the 
people  ?  to  encourage  the  spirit  of  unity  ?     (5)  To  what  extent  would 
these  assemblies  serve  to  increase  facilities  for  business  transactions  ? 
(6)  Is  there  any  evidence  that,  in  this  period,  the  people  as  a  whole 
(cf.  later  times)  engaged  in  a  great  feast  or  festival  ?    Or  is  it  rather  the 
custom  of  families  and  households?     (7)  What  did  the  prophet  say 
of  the  religious  value  of  the  feasts  ?     To  what  did  he  make  objection  ? 
(a)  the  lack  of  heart  manifested  ?  (&)  or  the  fact  that  they  were  held 
in  honor  of  other  gods  ?  or  (c)  the  fact  that  the  people  thought  the 
holding   of   these   feasts    to   constitute    the   whole    of   religion,   and 
neglected  all  that  seemed  pure  and  good  in  a  religious  life  ? 

4  Cf.  MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
Moon,"  "Zag-muk,"  "Festivals,"  etc.;  I.  ABRAHAMS,  article  "New  Moon"  in 
HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  See  also  HOMMEL,  Aufsatze  und  Abhandlungen 
(1900),  pp.  149-65- 

SC/.  GOLDZIHER,  Mythology  among  the  Hebrews,  pp.  96  ff.,  104;  STADE,  Ge- 
schichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  p.  68  ;  G.  F.  MOORE,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical 
Commentary  on  Judges,  pp.  304  f. 


98  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  98.  Constructive  Work. — Prepare  a  tabular  statement  which  will 
present  in  systematic  form  the  facts  concerning  the  feasts  of  the  earlier 
period,  as  follows:  (i)  name,  (2)  origin,  (3)  date,  (4)  duration,  (5) 
characteristic  ritual,  (6)  meaning  of  name,  (7)  religious  significance. 

§  99.  Feasts  of  the  Deuteronomic  Period,  that  is,  as  described  (a)  in 
the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  (b)  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and  (c)  by  the  prophets  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic period.6 

1.  Passover  and  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  are  now  combined. 
Deut.  16 : 1-8. 

2.  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Deut.  16  : 9-12. 

3.  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
Deut.  16  : 13-15 ;  31  :  10  f. 

4.  All  feasts  must  be  held  at  the  one  central  sanctuary. 
Deut.  16  :  5-7,  xi,  16  ;  31:11. 

5.  The  law  still  requires  attendance  at  three  feasts. 
Deut.  16  : 16  f . 

6.  Feasts  are  still  occasions  of  joy. 

Deut.  12  :  8  ;  14  :  26  ;  16  :  n,  14  f .;  24  :  1 1  ;  Isa.  9  :  3. 

7.  Feasts  are  still  on  an  agricultural  basis. 
Deut.  16  :  9,  13  ;  cf.i6:  i. 

8.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  feasts. 

Nah.  1:15;  Jer.  51  : 39 ;  Lam.  1:4,  15;  2  :  6  f.,  22. 

9.  Josiah's  Passover. 
2  Kings  23  121-23. 

§  100.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread, 
consider  (i)  that  the  two  feasts,  distinct  in  origin,  are  now  observed 
together;  (2)  the  association  of  the  Passover  with  the  exodus;  (3)  the 
connection  of  this  rite  with  that  of  the  firstlings  (Deut.  15  :  19  ff.);  (4) 
the  duration ;  (5)  the  lack  of  any  designation  of  the  day  of  the  month  ; 
(6)  the  significance  of  the  unleavened  bread,  and  its  historical  connec- 
tion ;  (7)  the  treatment  of  any  remaining  flesh ;  (8)  the  place  at  which 
this  feast  shall  be  observed;  (9)  the  change  in  ritual  and  conception 
which  takes  place  in  the  case  of  the  Passover  feast,  and  the  reason  for 
this;  (10)  the  circumstances  leading  to  the  coalescence  of  the  two 
feasts. 

6  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy. 


LAWS   AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  99 

2.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  notice  (i)  that  the  time  is  fixed 
in  connection  with  that  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  viz.,  seven 
weeks,  the  fiftieth  day;  (2)  the  duration  ;  (3)  the  persons  who  are  to  be 
invited  to  the  feast ;  (4)  the  place ;  (5)  the  joyous  character ;  (6)  the 
historical  reminiscence  suggested. 

3.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  consider  (i)  the  name  and 
its  origin  (cf.  i  Sam.  i  :  8);  (2)  the  time  (no  particular  day  designated); 
(3)  the  persons  who  are  to  participate ;  (4)  the  duration  ;  (5)  the  place ; 
(6)  the  motive  ;  (7)  the  joyous  character. 

4.  Consider  the  meaning  of  the  constantly  recurring  phrase, "  in  the 
place  which  Jehovah  thy  God  shall  choose  to  cause  his  name  to  dwell 
there;"  is  it  (i)  a  place, at  one  time  in  one  locality,  at  another  time  in 
another  locality,  and  consequently,  in  the  course  of  time,  are  several 
places  thus  designated  ?     Or  (2)  is  it  one  central  place  for  all  time, 
viz.,  Jerusalem  ?     (3)  Consider  some  of  the  consequences  which  would 
follow  such  centralization  ;  e.  g. :  (a)  Would  the  feast  thus  transferred 
to  Jerusalem  continue  its  agricultural  or  pastoral  character  ?     (l>)  If  a 
particular  day  is  fixed,  could  the  harvest  feast  any  longer  be  connected 
with  the  harvest,  which,  on  account  of  difference  of  climate,  occurred 
at  widely  separated  dates  ?     (c)  Would  the  historical  be  likely  to  sup- 
plant the  natural  interpretation  of  the  feast?     (d}  Would  the  original 
ritual  also  lose  its  significance  ?     (e)  Could  the  firstlings  actually  be 
taken  to  Jerusalem  to  be  sacrificed  ?     (/)  Could  the  head  of  a  family 
take  the  entire  family  and  dependents  to  Jerusalem  ?     (g)  Would  he 
sell  his  own  animal  or  grain,  and  then  go  to  Jerusalem  and  buy  (Deut. 
14  124-26)?     Would  this  affect  commerce  ?     (h}  Could  a  man,  in  this 
case,  arrange  a  sacrificial  meal  in  Jerusalem  and  have  his  family  and 
friends  with  him,  as  in  the  village  or  country?    (*)  Would  not  this  lead 
to  an  entire  change  in  the  feeling  connected  with  the  observance  of 
the  feast  ?     Would  the    observance    become  more    general  and    less 
individual,  more  formal  and  serious,  and  less  joyous  ? 

5.  Although  the  law  still  required  attendance  at  these  feasts,  is  it 
possible  to  suppose  that  any  considerable  proportion  of  the  people 
could  leave  their  homes  and  their  work,  and  go  to  Jerusalem  three 
times  in  a  year  ?    Would  this  have  the  effect  of  depriving  these  people 
of  religious  privileges? 

6.  Although  the  feasts  are  represented  as  still  continuing   their 
joyous  character,  could  the  old  feeling  actually  have  existed  under  the 
new  regime,  cut  off  as  the  worshiper  was  from  friends  and  family,  lost 
as  he  must  have  been  in  the  great  crowds  gathering  at  Jerusalem  ? 


100  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

7.  Although   feasts   are  still  nominally  on  an  agricultural  basis 
(cf.  the  names,  the  method  of  determining  the  date,  etc.),  will  it  be 
possible  for  the  agricultural  character  to  be  long  maintained  in  view 
of  (i)  the  detachment  of  the  feasts  from  the  exact  season  (one  time 
being  fixed  for  the  entire  country,  although  the  harvest  took  place  at 
different  dates  on  account  of  climate);  (2)  their  association  with  his- 
torical  events  and  the  emphasis  thus  placed  on    the  idea  of   com- 
memoration ;    (3)  the  necessary  sale  of   one's   own    effects,  and   the 
purchase  of  others  for  the  purpose  of  the  feast  ? 

8.  Upon   the  supposition  that  the  prophets  themselves  had  to  do 
with  the  formulation  of  the  policy  presented  in  Deuteronomy,  and  in 
view  of  the  opinions  expressed  by  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Isaiah,  what  may 
we  understand  to  have  been  their  general  position  on  the  subject  of 
these  feasts  and  festivals  ?     Did  they  represent  the  feasts  as  being  an 
essential  element  in  the  religious  life  ?     Did  they  wish  to  see  them 
modified  in  their  character  ?     Was  it  for  this  reason  that  they  joined 
with  the  priests  in  those  reforms,  recorded  in  Deuteronomy,  which  in 
the  end  largely  revolutionized  the  whole  system  ?    Did  they  think  that 
the  people  were  placing  a  false  value  upon  these  feasts  in  comparison 
with  a  pure  and  simple  life  ? 

9.  Upon  the  acceptance  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  by  Josiah  and 
his  people   in   621  B.  C.,  (i)  what   attitude  was  taken   by  the  king 
toward  the  various  corrupt  forms  of  worship  which  existed  at  that  time 
(cf.  Deut.  23:4-20)?     (2)  What  was  the  command  issued  as  to  the 
observance  of  the  Passover  ?     Does  this  mean  that  it  had  fallen  into 
disuse  ?     If  so,  how  is  such  disuse  to  be  explained  ?     (3)  What  was  the 
character  of  the  Passover  observed  on  this  occasion  ? 

§  10 1.  Constructive  Work. — Write  a  statement  covering  three  points : 
(i)  the  feasts  which  now  no  longer  seem  to  be  observed,  and  the  rea- 
sons; (2)  the  modifications  which  have  come  to  exist  in  the  feasts 
transmitted  from  the  earlier  period,  and  an  explanation  of  these 
modifications;  (3)  the  progress,  if  any,  which  has  been  made  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  ceremonial  of  worship  (so  far  as  it  concerned  feasts) 
to  the  religious  life ;  or,  to  use  the  form  of  a  question,  was  Israel  in  a 
better  or  worse  position  for  the  cultivation  of  the  religious  life,  with 
the  changes  which  had  now  come  about  ? 

§102.  Constructive  Work. —  From  Ezek.  36:38;  45:17,  18-21, 
22-25  j  46  :  i,  3,  6  ff.,  9,  consider  (i)  whether,  in  general,  Ezekiel  has 
much  to  say  upon  the  subject.  Is  this  because  his  development  lies 
along  other  lines,  or  because  the  development  has  already  reached  its 


LAWS   AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  10 1 

highest  point  ?  (2)  Is  there  evidence  (if  so,  what  ?)  that  the  Deutero- 
nomic  system  of  feasts  is  accepted  ?  (3)  In  what  cases  are  definite 
dates  now  given,  in  which,  hitherto,  the  time  has  been  left  undesig- 
nated  ?  (4)  What,  now,  is  the  relation  of  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  to 
that  of  Unleavened  Bread  ?  (5)  Present  the  evidence,  if  any  is  to  be 
found,  that  the  feasts  have  now  lost  their  joyous  character.  (6)  Is  the 
centralization  of  worship  involved  in  the  arrangements  which  Ezekiel 
proposes  ? 

§  103.  The  Feasts  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  (a)  in  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  code,  (fr)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  (c)  in  the 
priestly  histories,  viz.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles.7 

1.  Feast  of  the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread. 

Lev.  23  :  4-8  ;   Numb.  28  :  16-25  '»   9  :  I-I4  !   Exod.  12  : 1-20,  43-50  ;  2 
Chron.  8:13;  30:13-27;  35:1-19;  Ezra  6: 19-22. 

2.  Feast  of  Weeks. 

Lev.  23  : 15-21 ;  Numb.  28  :  26-31 ;  2  Chron.  8:13. 

3.  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

Lev.  23  : 34-36,  39-44  ;  Numb.  29  : 12-38 ;   2  Chron.  5  :  3  ff.;  7 :  8-10; 
8:13;  Ezra  3:4;  Neh.  8  :  13-18. 

4.  Feast  of  the  New  Moon. 

Numb.  28: 11-15;  *  Chron.  23  :  31 ;  2  Chron.  8:13;  31  :  3;  Ezra  3:5; 
Neh.  10:33. 

5.  Feast  of  Trumpets. 

Lev.  23  :  23-25  ;  Numb.  29  : 1-6  ;  10 : 10. 

6.  Definite  dates  are  fixed. 

Lev.  23  :  5,  6,  23,  27,  34,  39  ;  Numb.,  chaps.  28,  29;  Esther  9:21. 

7.  Agricultural  significance  is  wholly  lost. 
Lev.  23  :  42  f . 

8.  Celebration  of  feasts  at  Jerusalem  is  taken  for  granted. 
Zech.  14  :  16-19  ;  I  Chron.  23  :  31  ;  2  Chron.  35  :  1-19. 

9.  Sacrifices  are  multiplied  in  connection  with  feasts. 
Numb.,  chap.  29  ;  15  :  3  ;  2  Chron.  2:4;  30  :  24  ;  35  :  7-9. 

10.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  feasts. 
Zech.  14: 16-19;  Joel  r :  !4;  2:15. 

11.  Thought  of  sin  predominant  in  feasts. 

Lev.  23:19;  chap.  16;  Numb.  28:15,  22>  3°:  29:5>   ">  l6-  T9>  22,  25, 
28,  31,  34,  38  ;  Exod.  30  :  10. 

12.  Day  of  Atonement. 

Lev.  23:  27-32  ;  chap.  16  ;  Numb.  29  :  7-11 ;  Exod.  30: 10. 
?  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Levitical  code  of  laws. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOR1N 
SAISTA  BARBARA 


102  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

13.  Feast  of  Purim. 

Esther  8:17;  9  : 15-32. 

§  104.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  In  the  later  regulations  and  references  relating  to  the  Feast  of 
the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread,  note  (i)  the  new  phrases,  "set 
feasts,"  "holy  convocations,"  "appointed  seasons;"  (2)  the  exactness 
with  which  the  date  is  fixed;  (3)  the  absence  of  "servile  work;"  (4) 
the  burnt-offering,  and  the  meal-offering  prescribed,  the  sin-offering 
which  accompanies,  and  all  this  beside  the  continual  burnt-offering ; 
(5)  that  in  time  (cf.  Exod.  12  : 1-20)  the  opinion  comes  to  prevail  that 
the  Passover  had  been  established  before  the  exodus  "in  order  that 
Jehovah  might  spare  the  firstborn  of  Israel,  not  because  he  had  spared 
them;"  (6)  the  restrictions  placed  upon  participation  in  the  Passover 
(Exod.    12:43-50);    (7)  the    observance  according  to  Chronicles  (2 
Chron.  30:13-27)  of  the  Feast  of   Unleavened  Bread  in  Hezekiah's 
times;  (8)  Josiah's  Passover  (2  Chron.  35:  1-19);  (9)  Ezra's  Passover; 
(10)  the  place  of  all  these  observances;  (n)  their  general  character; 
(12)  that  the  offerings  have  the  nature  of  fixed  dues,  rather  than  of 
voluntary  gifts. 

2.  In  the  references  to  the  Feast  of   Weeks,  note  (i)  that  the  same 
general  characteristics  appear  as  in  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened 
Bread  (see  above) ;  (2)  that  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  becomes  a 
feast  commemorating  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai,  and  is  no  longer 
considered  a  nature  feast. 

3.  In  the  references  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  note  (i)  the  same 
points  as  were  considered  above  in  the  case  of  the  preceding  feasts, 
viz.,  fixing  of  date,  multiplication  of  various  kinds  of  offerings  for  each 
day,  no  servile  work,  etc.;  (2)  the  chronicler's  account  of  Solomon's 
observance  of  this  feast  in  connection  with  the  bringing  up  of  the  ark 
(2  Chron.   5:3ff.);  (3)  Solomon's  dedication  of  the  temple  in  con- 
nection with  this  same  feast  (2  Chron.  7  :  8-10);  (4)  the  observance  in 
connection  with  the  beginning  of  the  second  temple  (Ezra  3 : 4);  (5) 
the  dwelling  in  booths  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  8 :  13-18). 

4.  The  system  of  feasts  now  includes  more  definitely  the  Feast  of 
the  New  Moon,  concerning  which  it  may  be  noted,  (i)  that  a  regular 
ceremonial  is  instituted ;  (2)  that  frequent  mention  is  made  of  it  in 
connection  with  the  sabbath.     Consider  (3)  what  has  led  to  this  larger 
emphasis. 

5.  Consider,  in  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  (i)  its  connec- 
tion with  the  sabbatical    system;8   (2)   the   provisions   given    for  its 

8See  chap.  ix. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  1 03 

observance ;    (3)  the  general  provision  for  the  blowing  of   trumpets 
with  various  feasts. 

6.  In  all  the  cases  presented  consider  (i)  the  fact  that  now  the 
exact  day  of  the  month  is  prescribed  ;  (2)  the  significance  of  this  fact, 
as  compared  with  the  looser  designations  of  earlier  regulations. 

7.  In  all  the  cases  presented  consider  (i)  the  fact  that  the  agri- 
cultural significance  has  been  lost ;  (2)  the  fact  that,  even  in  the  case 
of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (the  last  of  all  to  receive  this  treatment), 
a  historical  meaning  has  been  suggested  and  adopted;  (3)  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  facts  as  seen  in  the  routine  of  the  ceremonial  and  the 
general  character  of  the  feasts. 

8.  Consider  (i)  whether,  although  no  explicit  statement  occurs  in 
the  legislative  material  covering  the  point,  it  is  not  everywhere  taken 
for  granted  that  all  feasts  shall  be  celebrated  at  one  place,  viz.,  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  (2)  whether  this  is  not  the  understanding  of  the  prophets 
and  historians  of  the  period. 

9.  Consider,  in  the  case  of  all  the  feasts,  (i)  whether  the  largest 
emphasis  is  not  now  placed  upon  the  sacrifice;  (2)  whether,  in  fact, 
with  the  great  multiplication  of  sacrifices,  everything  else  is  not  prac- 
tically ignored ;  (3)  the  influence  of  this  upon  the  people ;  (4)  the 
explanation  of  it. 

10.  What  appears  to  have  been  the  attitude  of  the   later  prophets 
toward  these  feasts?     Is  there  any  longer  indifference,  lack  of  appre- 
ciation, or  hostility?     Why  has  this  change  of  attitude  come  about? 
Does  Judaism  (Israel's  religion  after  the  exile)  adopt  an  entirely  new 
policy  in  reference  to  feasts,  as  compared  with  prophetism  (Israel's 
religion  before  the  exile)?     Were  the  prophets  of  this  period  really 
priests,  and,  in  consequence,  in  sympathy  with  everything  priestly  ? 
Had  prophecy  now  died  ? 

11.  Is  it  a  fact  that  the  idea  of  sin   is    now   everywhere   promi- 
nent ?  that,  indeed,  this  idea  is  the  controlling  idea?  that,  therefore, 
confession  instead  of  rejoicing  is  the  order  of  the  day  ?     If  this  is  the 
fact,  how  is  it  to  be  explained  ? 

12.  Concerning  the  Day  of  Atonement,   one  may  undertake   to 
answer  the  following  questions :  (i)  Was  it  observed  in  the  early  or 
middle  period,  or  did  its  observance  arise  only  in  the  later  period  ? 
(2)  Is  there  any  connection  between  it  and  Ezekiel's  days  of  atonement 
(45:18-20)?     (3)  Or  with  the  days  of  fasting  held  in  commemoration 
of  national  calamities  mentioned  in  Zech.  7:35;  8:19?     (4)  Or  with 
the  day  of  fasting  (the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  month)  mentioned  in 


104  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Neh.  9:1?  (5)  What  was  the  fundamental  idea  in  this  observance  ? 
Was  propitiation  thought  of  as  being  made  in  behalf  of  the  individual  or  of 
the  nation?  Were  the  sanctuary  and  the  land  also  included  ?  (6)  What 
evidence  does  the  ritual  furnish  as  to  the  fundamental  idea  ?  (7)  What 
is  the  meaning  of  the  phrases  "sabbath  of  solemn  rest,"  "afflict  your 
souls"  (Lev.  16:31)?  (8)  What  conception  of  God  gave  rise  to  the 
idea  of  sin  involved  in  this  institution? 

13.  In  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Purim  consider  (i)  its  origin  and 
occasion;  (2)  its  date;  (3)  the  question  of  its  connection  (a)  with  a 
Persian  feast,  (£)  with  a  Babylonian  feast ;  (4)  the  meaning  of  the 
name ;  (5)  the  method  of  observance.9 

§  105.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  show 
the  more  important  differences  in  the  observance  of  the  feasts  between 
the  usage  of  the  middle  period  and  that  of  the  later  period. 

§  1 06.  Literature  to  Be  Consulted. 

A,  P.  STANLEY,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Vol.  I,  Appendix 
i\i  =  The  Samaritan  Passover  (1862);  S.  CLARK,  article  "Passover,"  SMITH'S  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893) ;  EWALD,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed. 
1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  348-80;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869, 
5th  ed.  1896,  transl.  1892),  Vol.  I,  pp.  359-69;  II,  87-100,  402  ff.;  KUENEN,  Religion 
of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874),  Vol.  I,  pp.  242-5,  262-7  \  H»  PP-  28-30,  89-94,  253  f-> 
271-3;  III,  pp.  148-53;  OEHLER,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1873,  transl.  1883), 
§§140,  141,  144-6,  150,  153-6;  EDERSHEIM,  The  Temple:  Its  Ministry  and  Services 
(1874),  pp.  144-300 ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  article  "  Passover  and  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread," 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1875) ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel 
(1878,  transl.  1885),  pp.  83-120;  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish 
Church  (ist  ed.  1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  240,  269;  IDEM,  Prophets  of  Israel  (ist  ed. 
1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasts;"  EDERSHEIM,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus 
the  Messiah  (ist  ed.  1883),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Dedication,"  "Feasts,"  "Passover,"  etc.; 
W.  H.  GREEN,  The  Hebrew  Feasts  in  Their  Relation  to  Recent  Critical  Hypotheses 
Concerning  the  Pentateuch  (1885);  E.  ScHURER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  Christ  (iS8$,  transl.  1890),  passim;  PlEPENBRlNG,  Theology  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (1886,  transl.  1893),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feast,"  "  Passover,"  etc.;  SAYCE,  Reli- 
gion of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  pp.  64-9;  DOUGHTY, 
Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta,  Vol.  I  (1888),  pp.  50-84,  190-214;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Reli- 
gion of  the  Semites  (isted.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  pp.  252-8;  ROBERTSON,  Early  Religion 
of  Israel  (1889),  pp.  363,  372,  378,  385,  397,  401;  W.  ST.  CHAD  BOSCAWEN,  "The 

9Cf.  MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  pp.  686  ff.; 
ZlMMERN,  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  157-69;  DE 
LAGARDE,  Purim — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Religion;  SAYCE,  Proceedings  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  280;  JENSEN,  IViener  Zeitschrift  fiir 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,  Vol.  VI,  p.  70;  C.  H.  Toy,  "Esther  as  a  Babylonian 
Goddess,"  New  World,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  130-45  ;  ALEXANDER  KOHUT,  American  Journal 
of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  192  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  105 

Babylonian  and  Jewish  Festivals,"  Babylonian  and  Oriental  Record,  Vol.  IV  (1890),  pp. 
34-8  ;  C.  J.  BALL,  article  "  Festivals,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893) ; 
H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  The  Blood  Covenant  (1893),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasting;"  idem, 
Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (1894),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feast;"  idem,  The  Threshold 
Covenant  (1896),  pp.  203-12,  266;  H.  B.  TRISTRAM,  Eastern  Customs  in  Bible  Lands, 
(1894),  pp.  69-86;  SAYCE,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaology,  Vol. 
XIX  (1897),  pp.  280  f.;  E.  E.  HARDING,  article  "Feasts  and  Fasts,"  HASTINGS' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1898);  S.  R.  DRIVER  AND  H.  A.  WHITE,  article  "Day  of 
Atonement,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1898);  A.  KOHUT,  "The  Talmudic 
Records  of  the  Persian  and  Babylonian  Festivals  Critically  Illustrated,"  American 
Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIV  (1898),  pp.  182-94  (cf.  Revue 
des  etudes  juives,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp. 256-71);  MORRIS  JASTROW.JR.,  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Festivals;"  C.  H.  TOY,  "The  Meaning  of 
riDB,"/<?wr«0/  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XVI  (1898),  pp.  178  f.;  I.  BENZINGER 
AND  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  article  "  Day  of  Atonement,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1899);  W. 
W.  FOWLER,  The  Roman  Festivals  of  the  Period  of  the  Republic  (1899);  WARREN, 
"  Dates  on  Which  Paschal  Full  Moons  Occur,"  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly 
Statement,  October,  1900;  FAIRBANKS,  "Festival  Epidauria  at  Athens,"  Classical 
Review,  November,  1900;  FRAZER,  "The  Saturnalia  and  Kindred  Festivals,"  Fort- 
nightly Review,  October  and  November,  1900;  DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol. 
II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasts;"  I.  ABRAHAMS,  article  "New  Moon,"  HASTINGS' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1900);  I.  BENZINGER,  article  "Feasts,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1901);  WILLIS,  The  Worship  of  the  Old  Covenant,  pp.  190-214;  WATSON,  Cambridge 
Companion  to  the  Bible,  pp.  411-17;  FARNELL,  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  648  f. ;  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments  (1895-1901),  see  Index, 
s.  v.  "  Feasts." 

J.  SPENCER,  De  legibus  Hebraeorum  ritualibus  (2d  ed.  1686),  III,  Diss.  viii;  J. 
MEYER,  De  festis  Hebraeorum  (1724);  F.  C.  BAUR,  "Ueber  die  urspriingliche  Bedeu- 
tung  des  Passahfestes  und  des  Beschneidungsritus,"  Tiibinger  Zeitschrift,  1832,  I, 
40-124;  lDEM,"Der  hebraische  Sabbath  und  die  Nationalfeste  des  mosaischen  Cultus," 
ibid,,  1832,  III,  123-92  ;  VATKE,  Die  Religion  des  Allen  Testamentes  (1835),  Vol.  I,  pp. 
492-8 ;  J.  F.  L.  GEORGE, Die  dlteren  jiidischen  Feste  (&•$$};  H. EWALD,  in  Gdttingischer 
Gelehrter  Anzeiger,  1835,  pp.  2025  f.;  1836,  pp.  678  f.;  H.  EWALD,  in  Jahrbiicher 
der  biblischen  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  131  f.;  VIII,  p.  223;  IX,  pp.  257  f.;  F.  HITZIG, 
Ostern  und  Pfingsten  (1837);  BAHR,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Cultus  (1839),  Vol.  II, 
pp.  664  ff.;  H.  EWALD,  "  De  feriarum  hebraearum  origine  et  ratione,"  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,  Vol.  Ill  (1840),  pp.  410-41;  H.  HUPFELD,  De  primi- 
tiva  et  vera  festorum  apud  Hebraeos  ratione  ex  legum  Mosaicarum  eruenda  (1851-65); 
REDSLOB,  Die  biblischen  Angaben  iiber  Stiftung  und  Grund  der  Passahfeier  (1856); 
W.  SCHULTZ,  "Die  innere  Bedeutung  der  alttestamentlichen  Feste,"  Deutsche  Zeit- 
schrift fur  christliche  Wissenschaft  und  christliches  Leben,  1857,  pp.  23-30;  JOH. 
BACHMANN,  Die  Festgesetze  des  Pentateuch  aufs  neue  kritisch  unlersucht  (1858); 
DILLMANN,  article  "Feste,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexicon  (1869);  H.  OORT,  "De  groote 
Verzoendag,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol.  X  (1876),  pp.  142-65;  D.  HOFFMANN,  in 
BERLINER'S  Magazin,  1876,  pp.  I  ff. ;  IDEM,  Abhandlungen  iiber  die  Pentateuch- 
Gesetze,Vo\.\  (i878);lDEM,in  Magazin  fur  die  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthums,  1879,  PP- 
99  ff. ;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  und  kirchliches 
Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  173-83,621  ff.;  KUENEN,  in  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol. 


106  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

XVII  (1883),  pp.  207-12 ;  MiJLLER,  Kritischer  Versuch  iiber  den  Ursprung  des  Pesach- 
Mazzothfestes  (1883);  ADLER,  "Der  Versohnungstag  in  der  Bibel,  sein  Ursprung  und 
seine  Bedeutung,"  Zeilschrift  fur  die  altttstamentliche  Wissenschaft,Vo\.  Ill  (1883) 
pp.  178-85;  ORELLI,  articles  "Passah,"  "  Pfingstfest,"  Realencyklopddie  fur  protestan- 
tische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (2d  ed.  1883);  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  article  "Passah,' 
RIEHM'S  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  RlEHM,  article  "Feste,' 
RIEHM'S  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  ORELI.I,  article  "Ver- 
sohnungstag," Realencyklopddie  filr  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche (2d  ed.  1885); 
DE  LAGARDE,  "  Purim ;  ein  Beitrag  zur  Religionsgeschichte,"  Mittheilungen,  Vol.  II 
(1887),  pp.  378  ff.;  IV,  p.  147,  note  I;  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidentums 
(=Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  Ill,  1887),  pp.  75-98;  B.  STADE,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  (1887  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  497-503;  II,  pp.  182,  258-60;  I.  BENZINGER,  "Das 
Gesetz  iiber  den  grossen  Versohnungstag,  Lev.  XVI,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestament- 
liche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IX  (1889),  pp.  65-88;  RlEHM,  Alltestamentliche  Theologie 
(1889),  pp.  121-3;  H.  ZlMMERN,  "Zur  Frage  nach  dem  Ursprunge  des  Purimfestes," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  altteslamentliche  Wissenschaft,  1891,  pp.  157-69;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch 
der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Feste;"  W.  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp. 
138-203;  I.  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp.  464-78;  EERDMANS, 
"  Der  Ursprung  der  Ceremonien  des  Hosein-Festes,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie, 
Vol.  IX  (1894),  pp.  290  f . ;  S.  KARPPE,  "Melanges  de  critique  biblique  et  d'assyrio- 
logie,"  Rev?ie  stmitique,  Vol.  II  (1894),  pp.  146-51 ;  DlLLMANN,  Alttestamentliche 
Theologie  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feste,"  "Passah;"  K.  MARTI,  Geschichte  der 
israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Feste,"  "  Pesach,"  "  Laubhiittenfest," 
etc.;  F.  BUHL,  "Gottesdienstliche  Zeiten  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie  fur 
protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (1899);  SCHAEFER,  Das  Passah- Mazzoth  Fest 
(1900);  ERBT,  Purimsage  in  der  Bibel  (1900);  MOSSA,  "  Bedeutung  des  Passahfestes," 
Saat  auf  Hoffnung,  1900,  No.  2;  RIEDEL,  "Miscellen  5.  6.:  HOE,  rWOn  nS2J3," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XX  (1900),  pp.  319-32;  B. 
STADE,  "Nachwort  zu  Lie.  W.  Riedel's  5.  Miscelle:  HDS,"  ibid.,  pp.  333-7;  C. 
BROCKELMANN,  "Das  Neujahrsfest  der  JtzidJs, "  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgen- 
Idndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  LV  (1901),  pp.  388  ff. 

§107.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Consider  the  few  references  to  the  celebration  of  feasts  and  feast 
days  in  the   Psalter,  viz.,  Pss.   4:7;     81:3;    and  note  especially  the 
so-called  Psalms  of  Ascents,  viz.,  120—134,  and  their  use  in  worship.10 

2.  Put  together  the  references  to  feasts  in  the  books  of  Maccabees, 
viz.:  i  Mace,  i  :  39,  45;  4:52-59;  7  : 49 ;   10:34;   13:50-52;  2  Mace, 
i  =  9,  18;  2:9,  16;  6:6f.;    7:42;    8  :  33  ;    10  :  5-8  ;   12  :  31  f.;   15  :  36  ; 
and  make  such  a  statement  as  the  material  thus  examined  will  warrant. 

3.  Consider  the  principal  references  to  feasts  in   the  New  Testa- 
ment, viz.:    Matt.  26:2,  5,  17  ff.;  27:15;   Mark   14:  if.,   12,   14,   16; 

10  Cf.  WELLHAUSEN,  The  Book  of  Psalms — A  'New  English  Translation,  p. 
210;  KIRKPATRICK,  The  Psalms,  Books  II,  ///("Cambridge  Bible "),  p.  xxv  ;  MUR- 
RAY, Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Psalms,  pp.  292-5;  PEROWNE,  Book  of  Psalms,  Vol.  I, 
pp.86f.;  SMITH,  "The  Songs  of  the  Ascent,"  Expository  Times,  November,  1900. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  lO/ 

15:6;  Luke  2:4if.;  22:1-15;  23:17;  John  2:13,  23;  4:45; 
5:1;  6:4;  7:2-14,37;  10:22;  11:55!.;  12:1,12,20;  13:1,29; 
18:28,39;  19:14;  i  Cor.  5  :  7  ;  Heb.  11:28. 

4.  Take  up  for  critical  study  the  principal  Hebrew  words  used  to 

designate  the  feasts,  viz.:  fiCS ,  jiH,  FfiSDlD  J>F!>  T2Ipn  SH ;  jH 
CpCKH  ;  TOCn  3n  ;  -Bin  ;  rnSB  T  D"11S  ;  etc. 

5.  Compare,  in  a  very  general  way,  the  usage  concerning  feasts 
among  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and  note  points 
of  similarity  and  difference." 

6.  Consider  the  place  of    feasts   among   the    Assyrians,  noticing 
especially  the  great  number  of  them  and  the  many  points  of  similarity 
existing  between  the  usages  of  Assyrian  feasts  and  those  of  Hebrew 
feasts,  e.  g.,  the  pervading  spirit  of  joyousness,  the  agricultural  con- 
nection  of   some  of  them,  the  similarity  between   the  feast  of  Zag- 
muk  and  the  Jewish  New  Year's  festival,  and  the  Babylonian  origin  of 
the  Feast  of  Purim." 

7.  Study  the  Hebrew  feasts  in  their  relation  to  (a)  the  Arabic  feasts 
or  pilgrimages,  (b}  the  Canaanite  agricultural  feasts.'3 

8.  Consider  comparatively  the  three  great  factors  entering  into 
and  controlling  the  origin  and  development  of  feasts,  viz.,  the  element 
involved  in  a  nomadic  or  pastoral  life,  that  in  an  agricultural  life,  and 
that  in  a  city  life. 

9.  Consider  (i)  the  conception  of  God  which   had  come   to  be 
supreme  in   Israel  after  the  exile,  viz.,  holiness ;   (2)   the  relation  of 
this  conception  to  the  teaching  concerning  sin  prevalent  in  the  same 
period ;   and  (3)  the  influences  of  these  conceptions  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  the  feast  system. 

"See  W.  W.  FOWLER,  The  Roman  Festivals  of  the  Period  of  the  Republic;  FAIR- 
BANKS, "Festival  Epidauria  at  Athens,"  Classical  Review,  November,  1900;  FRAZER, 
"The  Saturnalia  and  Kindred  Festivals,"  Fortnightly  Review,  October  and  Novem- 
ber, 1900;  WIEDEMANN,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"  Festivals." 

"  Cf.  especially  MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  see 
Index,  s.  v.  "  Festivals." 

'3  See  SNOUCK  HURGRONJE,  Het  Mekkaansche  Fest;  DOUGHTY,  Travel*  in  Arabia 
Deserta;  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidentums;  and  other  literature  cited 
in  §  1 06. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH    AND    KINDRED 
INSTITUTIONS,  CONSIDERED  COMPARATIVELY. 

§  1 08.  The  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions  in  the  Early  Period, 
/.  e.,  as  described  in  (a)  the  Covenant  Code,  (<5)  the  historical  material 
of  J  and  E,  (<r)  the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings,  and  (d*)  the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59, 
note  i).1 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath.2 
Exod.  34 : 21 ;  20  :  8-1 1  ;  23  : 12. 

2.  Customs  connected  with  the  sabbath. 
2  Kings  4:23;    ii  :  5,  7,  9. 

3.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  sabbath. 
Amos  8:5;    Hos.  2  :  1 1  ;  Isa.  1:13. 

4.  The  law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Exod.  23  : 10 1;  21  :  2-11. 

§  109.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Consider,  in  examining  the  statements  made  concerning  the 
sabbath,  (i)  why  the  sabbath  is  the  only  religious  institution  men- 
tioned in  the  decalogue;  (2)  the  first  word,  remember,  and  compare 
the  first  word  in  Deut.  5:12,  observe.  (3)  Was  either  of  these  in  any 
sense  a  warning  equivalent  to  "take  care,"  "be  on  the  lookout  for"  ? 
(4)  What  is  the  logical  relation  of  the  fourth  commandment  to  the 
third,  second,  and  first  ?  Does  this  consist  in  its  having  originally 
had  to  do  with  the  deity,  as  do  the  preceding  ?  (5)  Are  there  other 
variations  between  the  two  forms  of  the  commandment  given  in  Exod., 
chap.  20,  and  Deut.,  chap.  5  ?  What  are  the  variations  ?  How  shall 
we  explain  the  existence  of  any  variations  at  all  ?  Is  it  possible  that 
Exod.  20:9-11  and  Deut.  5  :  13-15  are  later  additions  made  at  differ- 
ent times  to  an  earlier  form,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  commandments,  consisted  of  only  two  or  three  words, 

1  The  following  references  are  from  E  :  Exod.  20  :  8-10;  23:10-12;  21:2-11; 
the  only  reference  in  J  is  Exod.  34  : 21. 

*  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

108 


LAWS   AND    USAGES    CONCERNING   THE    SABBATH 

"Observe  (or  remember)  the  sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy"?3  (6)  What 
was  involved  in  the  command  to  keep  it  holy  ?  (7)  What  may  be  said 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  sabbath  ?  Was  it  probably  observed  by  the 
Hebrews  in  Egypt  ?  (8)  Was  it  originally  connected  with  the  new 
moon  ?  (9)  What  are  the  chief  considerations  offered  to  show  that  it 
was  originally  a  day  for  securing  the  good-will  of  the  deity,  /.  e.,  a  day 
on  which  Jehovah  rested  from  his  anger,  and  was,  therefore,  more 
easy  to  propitiate ;  a  day,  however,  which  might  prove  to  be  unfavor- 
able, but  which  might  be  changed  to  a  favorable  day  by  doing  or  not 
doing  certain  things?4  (10)  What,  if  this  view  is  adopted,  would  be 
understood  in  particular  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  word  rest?  of  the 
word  observe?  (n)  How  did  such  strong  emphasis  come  to  be  placed 
upon  the  idea  of  cessation  from  labor? 

2.  In  respect  to  the  usages  which  connected  themselves  with  the 
sabbath,  consider  (i)  the  custom  of  visiting  the  man  of  God  on  the  sab- 
bath ;  (2)  the  custom  of  dividing  the  temple  guard  according  as  it  came 
in  or  went  out  on  the  sabbath;  (3)  other  early  (?)  customs,  codified 
in  later  times, e.g.,  remaining  inside  the  house  (Exod.  16  :  29), kindling 
no  fire  (Exod.  35  :  3),  no  gathering  of  wood  for  the  fire  (Numb.  15  :  32- 
36),  no  baking  or  cooking  (Exod.    16:23).     (4)80   far  as  the  early 
records  are  concerned,  are  there  any  other  ideas  than  those  of  cessa- 
tion from  labor  and  of  humanitarian  motive  ? 

3.  What  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  few  allusions  to  the  sabbath 
made  by  the  prophets  ?     (i)  What  are  the  people  desiring  to  make  of 
the  sabbath,  according  to  Amos?     What  restraint  is  evidently  upon 
them  ?     (2)  Does  Hosea's  statement  seem  to  place  the  sabbath  in  the 
same  category  with  days  of    rejoicing  and  mirth  ?     (3)  What  is  the 
significance  of  the  frequent  association  (as  in  Isa.  i  :  13)  of  the  sabbath 
with  the  new  moon  ? 

4.  Consider  (i)  regulations   relating  to  the   release   of    Hebrew 
servants  after  six  years  of  labor;  did  this  imply  a  regularly  recurring 
seventh  year  in  which  all  servants  were  released  ?     Had  this   any- 
thing to  do  with  a  sabbatical  year  ?     (2)  The  regulations  prescribing 
that  the  crop  of  every  seventh  year  shall  be  given  to  the  poor  and 
the  beasts;  does  the  regulation  say  that  all  land  was  to  lie  fallow  in  the 

3  This  is  the  view  held,  for  example,  by  EWALD,  History  of  Israel,  Vol.  II,  p.  159 ; 
DlLLMANN,  Exodus,  p.  201;  Speaker's  Commentary,  p.  336;  DRIVER,  Introduction, 
etc.,  p.   34;   BRIGGS,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch,  pp.  181-7 ;   MARTI,  Ge- 
schichte  der  israelitischen  Religion;   et  al. 

4  JASTROW,  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  312-52. 


IIO  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

same  year  ?  Was  this  the  recognition  of  a  sabbatical  year  ?  (3)  The 
motives  underlying  these  regulations. 

§  1 10.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  indicate 
the  most  important  factors  entering  into  the  significance  of  the  sab- 
bath, and  its  characteristics  as  it  appears  in  the  earliest  period. 

§111.  The  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions  in  the  Middle  Period, 
/'.  e.,  as  described  in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  in  the  Deuteronomic 
prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the  books  of  Samuel 
and  Kings.5 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath  in  the  Deuteronomic  decalogue. 
Dcut.  5 : 12-15. 

2.  The  attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  sabbath. 

Jer.  17:1 9-27 ;  Isa.  56:2,4,6;  58:13,14;   66:23;  Lam.  1:7;  2:6. 

3.  The  law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Deut.  15  : 1-18;  31  :  10. 

4.  Release  of  slaves  in  Jeremiah. 
Jer.  34:8-17. 

§  1 1 2.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  now  in  detail  the  Deuteronomic  version  of  the  sabbath 
law,  including  (i)  the  word  observe,  (2)  the  reference  to  Jehovah's 
former  command  (vs.  12),  (3)  the  provision  for  the  rest  of  the  servants, 
(4)  the  reason  given  for  the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  viz.,  the  deliv- 
erance from  the  bondage  of  Egypt;  is  this  an  implication  that  the 
sabbath  was  not  observed  by  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  ?     How  is  it  to 
be  reconciled  with  the  reason  given  in  Exod.  20  :  u  ?    (5)  the  effect 
upon  the  observance  of  the  sabbath  of  the  centralization  of  worship  at 
Jerusalem ;  would  this  not  take  away  the  ritualistic  observance  and 
emphasize  the  humanitarian  idea? 

2.  In  an  examination  of  the  prophetic  and  historical  allusions  to 
the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  consider  (i)  the  small  number  of  such 
references ;  is  there  any  satisfactory  reason  ?  (2)  the  several  items  said 
by  Jeremiah  to  have  been  commanded  by  Jehovah,  viz.,  (a)  as  to  bur- 
dens, (t>)  as  to  work,  (c)  as  to  hallowing  the  day;  (3)  the  attitude  of 
the  people  (Jer.  17  =  23);  (4)  the  promises  and  threats  in  reference  to 
its  observance  (Jer.  17  :  24-27)  ;  (5)  the  position  assigned  to  the  sabbath 
in  connection  with  the  observance  of  the  covenant  (Isa.  56:2,  4,  6); 
(6)  the  meaning  of  the  phrases  from  doing  thy  pleasure,  and  call  the 
sabbath  a  delight  (Isa.  58:  13),  and  the  rewards  offered  ;  (7)  the  sabbath 

s  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteron- 
omy. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  I  I  I 

as  a  time,  like  the  new  moon,  for  worship  (Isa.  66  :  23);  (8)  the  forget- 
ting of  the  sabbath  in  the  exile. 

3.  Consider,    in    comparison    with    the    regulations   cited   above 
(§§108,  4;  109,4),  the  Deuteronomic  regulations  concerning  (i)  the 
year  of  release  of  debts :  (a)  to  whom  it  shall  and  shall  not  apply;  (b] 
does  it  mean  that  the  debt,  if  not  paid,  will  be  forgiven   or  become 
outlawed  ;  or  that  no  interest  will  be  exacted  during  this  seventh  year; 
or  that  no  proceedings  will  be  taken  against  the  debtor  during  that 
year?  (c)  the  reward  promised;  (d}  the  motive  for  this  law;  (i)  does 
it  imply  an  advanced  commercial  development  ?  (/)  is  the  year   a 
fixed  seventh  year  ?  (g)  would  it  encourage  or  discourage  business  ? 
(2)  the  regulations  for  the  release  of  the  Hebrew  servant,  noting  the 
slight  variations  from  the  law  given  in  Exodus;  (3)  whether  Deuteron- 
omy has  any  regulation   concerning  the   rest  of  the  land  (cf.  Exod. 
23  :  10  f.);  (4)  the  reading  of  the  law  prescribed  for  the  Feast  of  Tab- 
ernacles during  the  year  of  release  at  the  end  of  every  seven  years. 

4.  Consider  the  points  involved  in  the  story  of  the  release  of  slaves 
in  Jeremiah's  time. 

§113.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  brief  statement  showing  the 
nature  of  the  changes  which  are  being  made,  and  the  general  trend. 
§  114.  The  Sabbath  as  Described  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  20  :  12,  20. 

2.  The  sabbath  a  holy  day. 
Ezek.  44  :  24. 

3.  General  profanation  of  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  20 : 13-24  ;  22  :  8,  26  ;  23  :  38. 

4.  Special  worship  and  sacrifices  for  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  45  :i7;  46: 1-5,  12. 

5.  The  year  of  liberty. 
Ezek.  46  : 17. 

§  115.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What,  according  to  Ezekiel,  was  the  original  purpose  which  the 
sabbath  was  to  subserve  ?     Compare  the  purpose  also  of  the  statutes 
(Ezek.  20:  [i),  and  the  way  in  which  both  statutes  and  sabbaths  had 
been  treated  by  Israel. 

2.  What,  in  Ezekiel's  time,  was  meant  by  hallowing  or  keeping  holy 
the  sabbath  ? 


112  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

3.  What  was    meant  by  profaning  and  hiding  the  eyes  from  the 
sabbath  ?    Did  the  Israelites  simply  ignore  it,  or  did  they  intentionally 
do  that  which  brought  it  into  disrepute  ? 

4.  Note  the  special  character  of  the  offerings  indicated  in  Ezekiel's 
scheme  for  the  sabbath  day.    What  was  the  significance  of  this  ?    Con- 
sider how  the  sabbath  is  still  associated  with  the  new  moon. 

5.  Note  the  contents  of  the  single  reference  in  Ezekiel  to  the  year 
of  release  or  liberty. 

§  1 1 6.  Constructive  Work. — Summarize  the  position  of  Ezekiel,  and 
indicate  the  relation  of  Ezekiel's  attitude  on  this  question  to  his  gen- 
eral place  in  prophecy. 

§  1 17.  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions  in  the  Later  Period,  i.  e.,  as 
described  in  (a)  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  (b]  by  the  priestly 
prophets,  and  (c)  in  the  priestly  histories,  viz.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
Chronicles. 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath.6 

Lev.  23  :  3  ;  Exod.  31  : 12-17 1  35  : 1~3- 

2.  Special  days  observed  as  sabbaths. 

Lev.  23  :  7  f.,  24-32,  39  ;  16  :  29-31  ;     Numb.  28  : 11-15,  X8,  25  f • ;  29 :  i,  7, 
12,  35- 

3.  Reasons  assigned  for  the  observance  of  the  sabbath. 
Gen.  2  :  2  f . ;  Exod.  20  :  1 1 ;  31:12  f.,  17. 

4.  Special  offerings  made  on  the  sabbath. 

Lev.  23  :  38;  Numb.  28:9!;  i  Chron.  23  :3i;2Chron.  2:4;8:i3;  31  :3; 
Neh.  10 : 33. 

5.  Emphasis  laid  on  observance  of  the  sabbath. 

Lev.   19:3^,  soa/  26:20 /Exod.  16:22-30;  31:14-16;  35:2;  Numb. 
15  =  32-36;  Neh.  10:31  ;  13  : 15-22. 

6.  Use  of  the  sabbath  as  a  fixed  point  of  time. 

Lev.  23  : 15  f.;  24  :  8  ;  i  Chron.  9  :  32  ;  2  Chron.  23  :  4,  8. 

7.  Sabbath  made  known  on  Sinai. 
Neh,  9:14. 

8.  Law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Lev.  25 : 1-7  ;  26 : 34,  35. 

9.  Exile  conceived  of  as  a  sabbath  for  the  land. 
Lev.  26  : 34  f . ;  2  Chron.  36  :  2 1 . 

10.  Law  of  year  of  jubilee. 

Lev.,  chap.  25  ;  27 : 17-24 ;  Numb.  36 : 4. 

6  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Levitical  Code. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  113 

§  1 1 8.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  (i)  the  form  of  the  sabbath  observance  which  must 
have  existed  during  the  exile,  viz.,  the  humanitarian  and  not  the  ritu- 
alistic ;  the  adaptation  of  this  to  the  possibilities  of  worship  in  this 
period,  and  the  distinctive  character  which   it  must  have  given  the 
Jewish  community.     (2)  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  new  phrases  sol- 
emn rest,  holy  convocation,  sabbath   unto  Jehovah?      (3)  What  is  the 
purpose  of  the  sabbath  (cf.  Ezekiel)  ?  the  penalty  for  its  non-obser- 
vance ?  the  connection  between  sign  and  perpetual  covenant  ?    (4)  The 
reason  assigned  for  its  establishment  (cf.  Exod.  20  :  1 1)  ?     (5)  Why 
should  the  kindling  of  fire  have  been  prohibited  in  particular  ? 

2.  Note  how  the  idea  of  rest  now  attaches  itself  to  other  days,  viz., 
first  day  of  the  Passover,  first  day  of  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  first  and 
eighth  days  of  the  Feast  of  Booths,  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

3.  Consider  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  sabbath's  observance.*  (i) 
because  God  rested  on  the  seventh  day;  was  there  any  connection 
between  this  reason  and  the  fact  that  the  teaching  concerning  God  as 
Creator  is  greatly  emphasized  in  the  exilic  and  post-exilic  periods  ? 
(2)  because  it  is  to  serve  as  a  sign  between  God  and  Israel ;  did  this 
mean  that  it  distinguished  Israel  from  other  nations  which  did  not 
observe  it  ? 

4.  Note  the  details  and  significance  of  the  special  offering  made  on 
the  sabbath. 

5.  Consider  the  rigidity  with  which  the  sabbath  law  was  now  to  be 
enforced  :  (i)  on  the  same  plane  with  the  honoring  of  father  and  mother, 
and  the  reverencing  of  a  sanctuary;   (2)  penalty  of  death  imposed 
for  non-observance ;  (3)  the  story  of  the  man  who  gathered  sticks  on 
the  sabbath  day  and  suffered  death  by  stoning ;  (4)  the  gathering  of  a 
double  amount  of  manna  on  the  sixth  day  and  the  absence  of  manna 
on  the  sabbath ;  (5)  the  agreement  to  refrain  from  commercial  deal- 
ings on  the  sabbath ;  (6)  Nehemiah's  judicial  procedure  in  the  case  of 
those  violating  the  law. 

6.  Note  how  the  sabbath,  having  become  a  fixed  date,  every  seventh 
day,  is  used  as  a  point  from  which  to  calculate  other  feasts. 

7.  Note  the  tradition  preserved  by  Nehemiah  that  the  sabbath  was 
(first  ?)  made  known  on  Sinai. 

8.  Study  the  details  of  the  law  of  the  sabbatical  year :  (i)  Is  all 
agriculture  to  be  remitted  ?     (2)  What  is  to  be  the  disposition  of  the 
fruit  and  grain  that  grows  of  itself  ?     (3)  Was  Palestine  a  land  subject 
to  severe  famines  ?     If  so,  could  such   a   law  have  been  observed  ? 


114  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(4)  Could  it  have  been  observed  while  the  people  were  mainly  agri- 
culturists, /.  e.,  before  trade  and  commerce  had  come  in  ?  How  would 
the  people  living  in  rural  districts  spend  their  time  ?  (5)  Is  there  any 
evidence  that  'it  was  observed  before  the  exile  ?  or  that  it  was  not  (cf. 
Lev.  26:34,  35)?  (6)  Did  not  its  observance  in  later  times  cause 
great  distress  (i  Mace.  6:49,  53)?  (7)  What  connection  was  there 
between  this  sabbatical  year,  with  its  fixed  time  of  recurrence,  and  the 
year  of  release  for  slaves  and  debt  in  Deuteronomy  (§§  in,  3;  112,  3)? 

9.  Consider  the  idea  suggested  that  the  entire  period  of  exile  is  a 
period  of  sabbaths,  now  enforced  because  formerly  unobserved. 

10.  Concerning  the  Year  of  Jubilee,  consider  (i)  the  meaning  of  the 
name  ;  (2)  the  time  fixed  ;  was  it  the  fiftieth  year  following  the  seventh 
sabbatical  year,  that  is,  was  it  the  second  of  two  successive  years  of 
rest?  or  did  it  coincide  with  the  forty-ninth  year?  (3)  the  procedure; 
was  it,  in  general,  like  the  sabbatical  year  ?  (4)  what  was  the  regulation 
concerning  sowing,  reaping,  gathering  ?  (5)  concerning  the  restoration 
of  real  property  ?  (6)  the  special  provision  concerning  dwelling-houses 
in  walled  cities  ;  the  houses  of  the  Levites ;  (7)  the  regulation  concern- 
ing Hebrew  and  non- Hebrew  slaves  ;  (8)  concerning  land  dedicated  to 
Jehovah  and  its  redemption  ;  (9)  concerning  the  inheritance  of  daugh- 
ters as  affected  by  these  laws.     (10)  How  were  the  people  to  live  dur- 
ing this  period  of  abstinence  from  work?     (n)  Is  it  possible  that  the 
law  of  the  jubilee  year  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  law  of  the  sabbath  ?     (12) 
What  led  to  the  choice  of  the  fiftieth  year?    (13)  Is  there  any  evidence 
that  this  law  existed  before  the  time  of  the  exile  ?     (14)  Was  the  Year 
of  Jubilee  ever  observed  ?    (15)  Was  it  a  practical  law,  or  an  ideal  law? 
(16)  What,  in  general,  is  meant  by  ideal  legislation  ? 

§  119.  Constructive  Work. 

Prepare  a  statement  including  (a)  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
such  an  exceedingly  large  place  is  occupied  by  the  sabbatical  system 
in  the  legislation  and  thought  of  this  period ;  (b}  an  enumeration  of 
the  various  points  of  difference  between  the  laws  and  usages  of  this 
period  and  those  of  the  Deuteronomic  period  ;  and  (c}  a  brief  study  of 
the  development  of  the  sabbatical  idea  in  the  course  of  Israel's  history. 

§  120.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

JENNINGS,  Jewish  Antiquities  (1808),  pp.  320  f.;  EWALD,  History  of  Israel  (ist  ed. 
1843-59,  transl.  1883),  Vol.  I,  pp.  88  f.;  II,  pp.  209  f.;  V,  pp.  166  f.,  343,  400,  416; 
IDEM,  Antiquities  o/fsrael(iS$4,  transl.  1876),  pp.  97-107;  KALISCH,  Commentary  on 
Exodus  (1855),  in  foe.  20:8-11;  HESSEY,  On  the  Sabbath  ("Bampton  Lecture," 
1860,  3d  ed.  1866);  GILFILLAN,  On  the  Sabbath  (1862);  KURTZ,  Sacrificial  Worship 
of  the  Old  Testament  (1862,  transl.  1863),  pp.  342  ff.;  JOHNSTONE,  Sunday  and  the 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH 

Sabbath  (1863);  R.  S.  POOLE,  article  "Chronology,"  see  section  on  "Sabbatical  and 
Jubilee  Years,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  Cox, 
Literature  of  the  Sabbath  Question  (1865);  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed. 
1869,  transl.  1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath,"  "Sabbatical  Year,"  "Jubilee;" 
KUENEN,  The  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1894),  Vol.  I,  pp.  286  f.;  II,  pp. 
278-84  ;  SAYCE,  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  I  (1873),  PP-  ^4  f.;  OEHLER,  Theology  of 
the  Old  Testament  (ist  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1891,  transl.  1883),  pp.  328-45  ;  SAYCE, 
Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  VII  (1876),  p.  157;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the 
History  of  Israel  (1878),  pp.  112-20;  J.  FENTON,  Early  Hebrew  Life  (1880),  pp.  24-6, 
29-32,  64-70;  W.  D.  LOVE,  "The  Sabbath,  etc.,"  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1 880,  pp.  153-78, 
355-89,  419-39,  661-85;  1881,  pp.  254-85,524-52,  SCHRADER,  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions and  the  Old  Testament  (2d  ed.  1882,  transl.  1885),  Vol.  I,  pp.  18  ff.;  W.  R. 
SMITH,  Prophets  of  Israel  (ist  ed.  1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  pp.  385  f.;  FRANCIS  BROWN, 
"The  Sabbath  in  the  Cuneiform  Records,"  Presbyterian  Review,  1882,  pp.  688-700; 
DILLMANN,  Commentary  on  Genesis  (5th  ed.  1886,  transl.  1897  f.),  on  Gen.,  chap.  I; 
SCHURER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Orw/(i886,  transl.  1891), 
Div.  II, Vol.  II,  pp.  96-105  ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  articles  "Jubilee,"  "  Sabbath,"  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (1887);  SAYCE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  ("  Hibbert  Lectures," 
1887),  pp.  70-77;  DOUGHTY,  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta  (1888),  Vol.  I,  pp.  151,  366; 
II,  pp.  225,  306  ;  McCuNTOCK  AND  STRONG,  Cyclopadia  of  Biblical,  Theological  and 
Ecclesiastical  Literature  (1891),  articles  "Jubilee,"  "Sabbath,"  and  "Sabbatical 
Year ; "  JENSEN,  "  The  Supposed  Babylonian  Origin  of  the  Week  and  the  Sabbath," 
Sunday  School  Times,  January  16,  1892 ;  ALICE  M.  EARLE,  The  Sabbath  in  Puritan 
New  England  (7th  ed.  1893);  F.  GARDEN,  article  "Sabbatical  Year,"  SMITH'S  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893);  S.  CLARK  (revised  by  J.  M.  FULLER),  article 
"Jubilee,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893);  W.  E.  ADDIS,  Documents  of 
the  Hexateuch,  2  vols.  (1893-98),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jubilee,"  "Sabbath,"  etc.;  SAYCE, 
Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments  (1893),  PP-  74~7>  MoNTEFiORE, 
The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("Hibbert  Lectures,"  1893),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Sabbath;"  DAVIS,  Genesis  and  Semitic  Tradition  (1894),  pp.  23-35;  DRIVER,  A 
Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy  (1895),  pp.  174-81 ;  HiRSCHFELD, 
"  Remarks  on  the  Etymology  of  Sabbath, "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1896,  pp. 
354  f.;  ABRAHAMS,  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages(i8gj),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Sabbath ;  " 
MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  "  The  Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp.  312-52 ;  CHEYNE,  Jewish  Religious  Life  after 
the  Exite(iSgS),  pp.  66  f.;  S.  R.  DRIVER  AND  H.  A.  WHITE,  The  Book  of  Leviticus  — 
a  New  English  Translation  (Polychrome  Bible,  1898),  pp.  97-100 ;  E.  A.  W.  BUDGE, 
Egyptian  Magic  (1899),  pp.  224-8;  SAYCE,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and 
Customs  (1899),  p.  245  ;  KENT,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  During  the  Babylonian, 
Persian,  and  Greek  Periods  (1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath;"  SINKER,  Essays  and 
Studies  (1900);  J.  ESTLIN-CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD  BATTERSBY,  The  Hexa- 
teuch (1900),  Vol.  II,  p.  112 ;  T.  F.  WRIGHT,  "  Sabbath,"  New  Church  Review,  Janu- 
ary, 1900;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  I.  BENZINGER,  article  "Jubilee,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1901);  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  Ill  (1901),  pp.  376  f.; 
MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  "  Hebrew  and  Babylonian  Accounts  of  Creation,"  Jewish 
Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  XIII  (1901),  pp.  648-50;  H.  R.  GAMBLE,  Sunday  and  the 
Sabbath  (Golden  Lectures  for  1900-1901);  C.  F.  KENT,  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XVIII 
(1901),  pp.  344-8. 


Il6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

J.  SPENCER,  De  legibus  Hebraeorum  ritualibus  (2d  ed.  1686);  WAGENS^IL,  De  anno 
iubilaeo  Hebraeorum  (1700);  J.  H.  MAI,  Maimonidis  tract,  de  juribus  anni  septimi  et 
jubilaei(ilo$)',  VAN  DER  HARDT,  De  jubilaeo  Mosis  (1728);  REINECCIUS,  De  origine 
jubilaeorum  (1730);  CARPZOV,  De  anno  jubilaeo  (1730);  HEBENSTREIT,  De  sabbato 
ante  leges  Mosis  existente  (1748);  MEYER,  De  temporibus  et  diebus  Hebraeorum  (1755), 
pp.  341-60;  MICHAELIS,  Comm.  in  leg.  Mosis  (1775-80),  Vol.  I,  pp.  76-419;  FRANKE, 
Novum  systema  chronologiae  fundamentalis  (1778);  HUG,  "  Ueber  das  mosaische 
Gesetz  vom  Jubeljahr,"  Zeitschrift fiir  das  Erzbisthum,  I,  I;  DE  WETTE,  Lehrbuch  der 
hebrdisch-judischen  Archdologie  (ist  ed.  1814,  4th  ed.  1864),  pp.  21 1  f.;  BAUR,  "Der 
hebraische  Sabbath  und  die  Nationalfeste  des  Mosaischen  Kultus,"  Tiibinger  Zeit- 
schrift, 1832,  pp.  125  f.;  VATKE,  Die  Religion  des  Alien  Testamentes  (1835),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  198  f.;  KRANOLD,  De  anno  Hebraeorum  jubilaeo  (1835);  G.  WOLDE,  De  anno 
Hebraeorum  jubilaeo  (1837);  BAHR,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Cultus  (1839),  Vol.  I,  pp. 
572  f.;  II,  pp.  569  f.,  601  f.;  WINER'S  Biblisches  Realwbrterbuch  (3d  ed.  1847),  articles 
"Sabbath,"  etc.;  EWALD,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft, 
Vol.  I  (1847),  pp.  410  ff.;  BRUGSCH,  ibid.,  Vol.  Ill  (1849),  pp.  271  ff.;  PROUDHON, 
De  la  celebration  du  Dimanche  (1850);  OsCHWALD,  Die  christliche  Sonntagsfeier  (1850); 
LlEBETRUT,  Die  Sonntagsfeier  das  Wochenfest  des  Volkes  Gottes  (1851);  HERZFELD, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1855),  pp.  458-65  ;  SAALSCHUTZ,  Archdologie  der 
Hebrder,  Vol.  II  (1856),  pp.  224  ff.,  308  ff.;  ZUCKERMANN,  Sabbathjahrcyclus  und 
fubelperiode  (1857);  HUPFELD,  Commentatio  de  Hebraeorum  festis,  Part  III  (1858); 
KEIL,  Handbuch  der  biblischen  Archdologie  (ist  ed.  1858  f.,  2d  ed.  1875),  Vol.  I,  §§77 
ff.;  DOZY,  Die  Israeliten  zu  Mekka  (transl.  from  Dutch  1864),  pp.  34  f.;  KUBEL, 
"  Die  sociale  und  volkswirtschaftliche  Gesetzgebung  des  Allen  Testamentes,"  Theo- 
logische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1871,  pp.  760  ff.;  STEINER,  article  "Jubeljahr"  in 
SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  Ill  (1871);  SCHRADER,  "  Der  babylonische  Ursprung 
der  siebentagigen  Woche,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1874,  pp.  343  ff.; 
MANGOLD,  articles  "Sabbat"  and  " Sabbatsjahr"  in  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon, 
Vol.  V  (1875);  KOHLER,  Lehrbuch  der  biblischen  Geschichte,  Vol.1  (1875),  pp.  431  ff.; 
KLOSTERMANN,  "Uber  die  kalendarische  Bedeutung  des  Jobeljahres,"  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1 880,  pp.  720-48;  DlLLMANN,  Die  Biicher  Exodus  und 
Leviticus  (2d  ed.  1880),  pp.  602  ff.;  BUDDE,  Die  biblische  Urgeschichte  (1883),  pp.  493 
ff.;  LOTZ,  Quaestiones  de  historia  sabbathi  (1883);  HOFFMANN,  "Versuche  zu  Amos," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  Ill  (1883),  pp.  120  f.;  OEHLER, 
articles  "Sabbath"  and  "Sabbath- und  Jobeljahr,"  revised  by  VON  ORELLI,  in  Real- 
encyklopddie  fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (2d  ed.  1884);  RlEHM,  articles 
"Jobeljahr,"  "Sabbath,"  "Sabbathjahr "  in  RIEHM'S  Handwbrterbuch  des  biblischen 
Allerthums  (ist  ed.  1884,  2d  ed.  1893  f-);  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I 
(1887),  pp.  498  f.;  WELLHAUSEN,  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  (2d  ed.  1889),  pp.  187  f.; 
JENSEN,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie,  Vol.  IV  (1889),  pp.  274  ff.;  H.  L.  STRACK,  Der 
Mischnatraktat  "Sabbath  "  herausgegeben  und  erkldrt  (1890);  BAENTSCH,  Das Bundes- 
buch — Ex.  XX.  22 — XXIII.  33  (1892),  pp.  115  f.;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath" 
and  "Jubeljahr;"  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  217,  333;  II,  pp.  138-44,  159-72;  BENZINGER,  Hebraische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp. 
201  f.,  464  ff.,  473  f.;  GUNKEL,  Schbpfung  und  Chaos  (1895),  PP-  13*-.  "4-I?  ;  DILL- 
MANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jobeljahr" 
and  "Sabbat;"  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  117 

"Sabbat"  and  "Jobeljahr;"  HOLZINGER,  Exodus  (Jfurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum 
Alien  Testament},  see  Index,  $.  v.  "Sabbath"  (1900);  BERTHOLET,  Leviticus  (Kurzer 
Hand-Commentar  zum  Allen  Testament),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jobeljahr,"  "Sabbat," 
(1901). 

See  also  the  Mishnah  tracts  on  "The  Sabbath"  and  "The  Book  of  Jubilees," 
chap.  50. 

§121.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Study  the  meaning  of  the  word  "sabbath,"  its  derivation,  its 
usage. 

2.  Examine  the  following  texts  in  which  the  root  fQlZJ  occurs,  with 
a  view  to  determining  the  meaning  of  the  root,  viz.:  Gen.  2  :  2  f.;  8:22; 
Exod.  16:30;  12:  15;  23:  12;  34:21 ;  Josh.  5  :  12;  Isa.  13:  n;  14:5; 

30  :  7  ;  Ps.  8  :  3  ;  Prov.  20  :  3. 

3.  Study  the  passages  in  which  the  word  "pX"Qlfl  (ordinarily  trans- 
lated  "solemn    rest")   occurs,  viz.:    Lev.   23:3,  24,   32,   39;   16:31; 
25:4;  Exod.  16:23;  35:2;  31:15,  with  a  view  to  determining  its 
meaning. 

4.  Examine  the  words  bl"1  ("jubilee"),  TlT]  ("liberty"). 

5.  From    an    examination    of    i    Mace,    i  :  39,   43,   45 ;    2  : 32-41  ; 
6  =49;  9:43ff-;   1°  :  345  2  Mace.   5:24-26;  6:6,  n;   12:38;   15:  1-5, 
prepare  a  statement  concerning  the  sabbath  in  Maccabean  times. 

6.  Is  the  sabbath    referred   to  in  the   Wisdom   books,  or  in  the 
Psalms  (cf.  the  title  of  Ps.  92)?     Why  not? 

7.  From  a  study  of  the  following  references  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment discuss  the  attitude  of  Jesus  and  the  several  New  Testament 
writers  toward  the  sabbath  :    Matt.  12  :  i  f.,  5,  8,  10  ff.;  24  :  20  ;  28  :  i ; 
Mark  1:21;  2  :  23  f.,  27  f.;  3  :  2,  4  ;  6:2;   15  :  42  ;   16  :  i  ;  Luke  4  :  16, 

31  ;  6  :  i  ff.,  5  ff.,  9  ;  13:10,  14  ff.;  14  :  i,  3,  5  ;  23  :  54,  56  ;  John  5  :  9  f., 
16,  18  ;  7  :  22  f.;  9  :  14,  16  ;   19:31;  Acts  1:12;   13  :  14,  27,  42,  44; 
15:21;   18:4;   21:27;  28  :  14  ;  Col.   2:16;  Heb.  4:4;  Rev.  i  :  10. 

8.  Compare,  in  general,  the  observance  of  special  rest-days  among 
the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  determine  whether  there  is 
any  possible  connection  between  these  days  and  the  sabbath.7 

9.  Compare,  in  general,  the  observance,  on  the  part  of  the  Assyrians, 

i  Cf.  MASPERO,  Romans  et  Polsies  au  Papyrus  Harris,  No.  joo,  pp.  38!.  41; 
CHABAS,  Le  calendrier  des  jours  fastes  et  nefastes  de  I'annee  Igyptienne;  WIEDEMANN, 
Religion  of  the  Egyptians,  pp.  263  f. ;  JASTROW,  "Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew 
Sabbath,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II,  p.  350,  note  116;  BUDGE,  Egyptian 
Magic,  pp.  224-8;  IHERING,  Vorgeschichte  der  Indo-Europaer,  pp.  145,  309-58  ff. 
(in  English  translation  =  The  Evolution  of  the  Aryan,  New  York,  1897);  H.  COHEN, 
"Der  Sabbath  in  seiner  culturgeschichtlichen  Bedeutung,"  Zeitgeist  (Milwaukee,  Wis.), 
1881,  pp.  4ff.;  DOZY,  Die  Israeliten  zu  Mekka,  pp.  34  f.;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel, 


118  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Arabs,  and  Canaanites,  of  special  rest-days,  and  determine  whether 
there  is  any  connection  between  these  days  and  the  sabbath.8 

10.  Consider,  in  general,  the  whole  sabbatical  system,  and  show 
(a)  its  origin,  (b]  its  various  stages  of  development,  (c)  its  social  bear- 
ings, (d)  its  religious  significance,  (e)  its  idealism,  (/)  its  practical 
character. 

n.  Consider  the  relation  of  the  sabbath  to  the  moon,  the  new- 
moon  feast,  etc.  Was  the  sabbath  originally  a  lunar  festival  ?  Cf. 

§§97  (9)»  104(4)- 

12.  Consider  the  origin  and  significance  of  the  use  of  the  number 
seven  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  seen,  e.  g.,  in  the  sabbatical  system,  in 
the  proceedings  connected  with  the  capture  of  Jericho,  in  the  Hebrew 
verb  "to  swear,  take  oath"  (literally  =  " to  seven  oneself"  or  "be  sev- 
ened"),  in  the  seven  kine  of  Pharaoh's  dream,  etc. 

13.  What   is  the   relation    of   the  Old  Testament  sabbath  to  the 
"  Lord's  day  "  of  the  New  Testament,  (a)  as  to  the  day  observed,  (&)  as 
to  the  spirit  characteristic  of  the  observance  ? 

Vol.  I,  pp.  262  f.;  LEPSIUS,  Chronologie  der  Aegypter,  Vol.  I,  pp.  22,  132  ff. ; 
BRUGSCH,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  271; 
NOWACK,  Hebrdische  Archaologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  141  f. 

8  Cf.  MORRIS  JASTROW,  "  Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  312-52;  SAYCE,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life 
and  Customs,  p.  245  ;  SCHRADER,  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1874,  pp.  343~53; 
FRANCIS  BROWN,  "  The  Sabbath  in  the  Cuneiform  Records,"  Presbyterian  Review, 
1882,  pp.  688-700;  C.  H.  W.  JOHNS,  Assyrian  Deeds  and  Documents,  Vol,  II,  pp.  40  f. 
(See  also  §120.) 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN,  CONSIDERED 

COMPARATIVELY. 

§  122.  The  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the  Early  Period,  /.  e.,  as  described 
in  (a)  the  Covenant  Code ;  (^)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E  ;  (c) 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings ;  and 
(d}  the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i).1 

1.  Traces  of  totemism. 

Gen.  43  :  32  ;  46  :  34  ;  Exod.  8  :  26. 

2.  Distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  is  ancient. 
Gen.  7  :  2,  8  ;  8  :  20. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Gen.  35  : 2  ;  2  Sam.  11:4;  2  Kings  5  :  10-14  ;  Isa.  30 : 22. 

4.  Non-Israelitish  lands  are  unclean. 
Amos  7:17;  Hos.  9  :  3. 

5.  Forbidden  food. 

Exod.  23  :  igb;  34  :  zGb;  22 : 31.* 

6.  Cleanness  is  necessary  to  participation  in  religious  exercises. 
Gen.  35  : 2  ;  Exod.  3:5;  19:10;  i  Sam.  20 : 26  ;  Judg.  13:4,  7,  14 ; 
Isa.  6:5;  2  Kings  10:  22  ;  2  Sam.  6  :  14. 

7.  Attitude  of  prophets  toward  clean  and  unclean. 
Amos  7:17  ;  Hos.  9:3  ;  Isa.  i :  16 ;  6:5;  30:22. 

§  123.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Consider  (i)  the  meaning  of  "every  shepherd  is  an  abomination 
unto  the  Egyptians,"  and  what  is  involved  in  the  statement ;  (2)  the 
meaning  of  "sacrifice  the  abomination  ot  the  Egyptians;"  (3)  whether 
that  which  is  called  an  "abomination"  may  have  been  something  sacred 
or  holy,  /.  e.,  something  worshiped,  for  example,  an  animal ;  (4)  whether, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  existed  in  Israel  cases  of  special  association 
between  certain  kinds  of  animals  and  certain  tribes  or  certain  towns;3 

1  The  following  references  are  from  J  :  Gen.  7  : 2,  8  ;  8  :  20 ;  43  : 32  ;  46  :  34 ;  Exod. 
8  :  26  ;  34 :  266.  The  following  are  from  E  :  Gen.  35  :  2  ;  Exod.  22  :  316,-  23  :  iqb. 

3  These  references  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

*Cf.  Nun  (Fish),  Exod.  33:  II  ;  Terah  (Ibex),  Gen.  II  :  27 ;  Leah  (Wild  Cow), 
Gen.  29  :  16 ;  and  see  R.  G.  MURISON,  "Totemism  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Biblical 
World,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  170  ff. 

IIQ 


I2O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(5)  whether  there  are  not  cases  in  which  animals  are  regarded  as 
having  superhuman  power;4  (6)  whether  the  second  commandment 
does  not  imply  that  the  Israelites  were  addicted  to  animal-worship  : 
(7)  whether  actual  historical  proof  of  this  is  not  found  in  the  story  of 
the  worship  of  the  calf  (Exod.  32  :  7-24)  and  of  the  brazen  serpent 
(Numb.  21 : 8  f.;  2  Kings  18:4);  (8)  the  meaning  and  significance  of 
totemism? 

2.  Note  (i)  the  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  animals  made 
in  the  narrative  of  the  deluge,  and  consider  (2)  whether  the  words 
unclean  and  sacred  may  not  be  used  synonymously;  that  is,  was  not 
the  unclean  thing  (whether  animal  or  person  or  object)  something  in 
connection  with  which  "  a  superhuman  agency  of  a  dangerous  kind  " 
was  supposed  to  be  acting,  and  which,  therefore,  was,  from  one  point 
of  view,  sacred,  from  another,  unclean  ?  (3)  whether  this  is  not  to  be 
closely  associated  with  the  usage  existing  among  many  nations  and 
called  taboo.6 

3.  Consider  the  source  of  uncleanness  in  the  case  of  (i)  Jacob's 
household,    (2)    Bathsheba,    (3)    Naaman  the   Syrian,   (4)  the  graven 
images  (Isa.  30  :  22) ;  and  formulate  a  statement  which  will  (a)  classify 
these  sources  and  (b]  explain  the  idea  of  uncleanness  in  each  case. 

4.  Consider  the  idea  that  for  an  Israelite  any  other  land  than  his 
own  was  unclean,  and  explain  the  basis  on  which  this  idea  rests. 

5.  Note  the  prohibition  of  eating  (i)  a  kid  boiled  in  its  mother's 
milk,7  (2)  the  flesh  torn  of  beasts ;  and  explain  the  significance  of  the 
usage  in  each  case.     Are  there  in  the  Covenant  Code  other  prohibi- 
tions concerning  the  eating  of  food  ? 

6.  Explain  (i) the  "washing  of  garments"  in  Exod.  19: 10  ;  (2)  the 
reason  assigned  by  Saul  for  Jonathan's  absence  (i  Sam.  20:26);  (3) 
the  connection  of  "eating  no  unclean  thing"  with  the  Nazirite  (Judg. 
13:4);    (4)    Isaiah's  confession   of   unclean  lips  (Isa.    6:5);    (5)  the 
putting  off  of  shoes  (Exod.   3  :  5);  (6)  the  use  of  the  vestments  (2 
Kings  10 :  22);  (7)  the  use  of  the  linen  ephod  (2  Sam.  6:  14). 

7.  How  far  were  the  current  ideas  concerning  clean  and  unclean 

*  Cf.  Gen.  3  : 1  ff.;  Numb.  21  :  8  f.;  Ezek.  8  :  10  f. 

s  See  especially  J.  G.  FRAZER,  Totemism;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites 
(2d  ed.),  pp.  125  ff. ;   and  other  literature  cited  in  §  134. 

6  See  especially  J.  G.  FRAZER,  article  "  Taboo,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;  W.  R. 
SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (2d  ed.),  pp.  152  ff.,  446  ff. 

'See  KALISCH,  Commentary  on  Exod.  23:19*,  and  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of 
the  Semites  (2d  ed.),  p.  221. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         121 

accepted  by  the  prophets  ?  Consider,  for  example,  (i)  the  view  held 
concerning  foreign  lands ;  (2)  the  exhortation  to  wash  and  become 
clean  (Isa.  1:6);  (3)  Isaiah's  feeling  concerning  himself  (6 :  5);  (4) 
the  treatment  of  graven  images  (Isa.  30 :  22). 

§  124.  Constructive  Work. —  From  the  material  furnished  prepare  a 
general  statement  upon  the  idea  of  the  clean  and  unclean  in  the 
earliest  period. 

§125.  The  Usages  and  Laws  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the 
Middle  Period,  /'.  e.,  as  described  in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  in  the 
Deuteronomic  prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.8 

1.  Traces  of  totemism. 

Deut.  32:17;    2  Kings  22:12;    Jer.  36:10;   cf.  2   Kings   18:4    and 
Ezek.  8:7-12. 

2.  Forbidden  food. 

Deut.  12  : 16,  23  ff.;  14  :  3-21  ;  15  : 23. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Deut.  21 :  22  f.;  23  :  iof.;  23  : 12-14  '<  7  '•  25  f-I  Jer.  16  : 18  ;  Lam.  4  : 14  f. 

4.  Cleanness  necessary  to  participation  in  religious  exercises. 
Deut.  12 : 15  ;  15  :  21  f.;  26  : 13  f.;  Isa.  52:1,  1 1. 

5.  Prophetic  attitude  toward  clean  and  unclean. 

Jer.  2  :7,  23  ;   13:  27  ;   16: 18;  33  :  8  ;  Lam.  4  : 14  f.;  Isa.  52  :  i,  11. 
§  126.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Note  that  individuals  and  heads  of  clans  still  bear  the  names  of 
animals,  e.g.,  Shaphan  (=Rock  Badger),  Achbor  (=  Mouse).    What  is 
the  significance  of  this  in  view  of  the  fact  that  as  recently  as  the  days 
of  Hezekiah  the  image  of  a  serpent  was  still  being  worshiped,  and 
that  Ezekiel  testifies  to  the  existence  of  similar  worship  just  prior  to 
the  exile  ? 

2.  Consider  (i)  the  regulation  concerning  the  eating  of  blood,  and 
the  ground  on  which  it  rests;  (2)  whether  in  this  case  the  principle  of 
taboo  is  not  clearly  found  ;  (3)  the  general  command  concerning  eat- 
ing anything  "abominable:"  (4)  the  animals  which  might  be  eaten, 
and  their  general  characteristics ;  (5)  the  animals  which  might  not  be 
eaten,  and  their  general  characteristics  ;  (6)   the  general  principles 
which  seem  to  underlie  the  selection;  (7)  the  character  of  a  selection 
arising  in  this  way  ;  (8)  the  fact  that  the  number  of  clean  quadrupeds 
is  ten;  (9)  whether  this  distinction  was  something  objective  imposed 

8  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 


122  PRIESTLY   ELEMENT   IN   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

upon  the  people  for  a  purpose  (if  so,  was  this  purpose  (a)  to  train  the 
people  in  obedience,  or  (&)  to  provide  hygienic  dietary  laws,  or  (c)  to 
teach  important  religious  truth  by  an  allegorical  method,  or  (</)  to 
separate  the  Israelites  from  other  nations,  or  (<?)  to  prevent  the  wor- 
ship of  certain  animals  ?);  or,  rather,  something  subjective,  of  gradual 
growth,  and  expressive  of  certain  instinctive  feelings  (for  example,  (a) 
that  of  aversion,  or  (6)  appreciation  of  utility  or  beauty,  or  (t)  expe- 
rience of  the  use  of  this  or  that  kind  of  flesh) ;  or  whether  the  origin 
is  to  be  connected  with  some  form  or  other  of  totemism  ;  (10)  the 
absence  of  any  list  of  clean  and  unclean  animals  in  the  Covenant  Code, 
and  the  significance  of  so  fully  developed  a  list  in  the  Deuteronomic 
Code. 

3.  Consider  (i)  some  of  the  sources  of  uncleanness  as  cited,  e.  g.y 
the  body  of  a  man  who  has  been  hanged;  issues  of  the  body;  graven 
images;    "carcasses  of   detestable  things;"  contagion;  and  (2)   the 
method  suggested  for  purification. 

4.  Note  the  necessity  of  cleanness  on  the  part  of  one  who  is  to 
engage  in  a  religious  exercise,  and  in  this  connection  (i)  the  fact  that 
the  flesh  of  certain  animals  may  be  eaten  alike  by  those  who  are  clean 
and  by  those  who  are  unclean ;  (2)  the  prohibition  of  the  lame,  the 
blind,  or  the  blemished  in  sacrifice;  (3)  the  synonymous  use  of  the 
words  "uncircumcised  "  and  "unclean."9 

5.  Study  the  prophetic  attitude  toward  infringement  of  the  regu- 
lations concerning  "clean  and  unclean,"  and  the  punishment  which 
is  to  follow  this  infringement.    How  far  do  the  prophets  of  this  period 
seem  to  have  shared  the  ideas  of  their  times  on  this  subject  ?     Does 
their  attitude  relate  to  the  minute  particulars  of  the  system,  or  to  the 
general  question  of  loyalty  or  obedience  ? 

§  127.  Constructive  Work.  —  Compare,  in  general,  the  minuteness 
of  the  regulations  of  this  period  in  contrast  with  those  of  the  earlier 
period  ;  characterize  these  regulations  as  a  whole  ;  and  consider  whether 
they  are  (i)  really  new  usages  which  had  their  origin  after  the  formu- 
lation of  the  book  of  the  covenant,  or  (2)  old  usages,  for  the  most 
part,  which  are  now  codified  for  the  first  time  ;  (3)  in  the  former  case, 
whence  may  they  be  supposed  to  have  come  ?  (4)  in  the  latter  case, 
to  what  influence  are  we  to  ascribe  their  codification  ? 

§  128.  The  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  Ezekiel. 

i.    Traces  of  totemism. 

Ezek.  8  :7-i2. 
'For  a  further  study  of  the  subject  of  circumcision  see  §§  164  f. 


LAWS   AND   USAGES   CONCERNING   CLEAN   AND   UNCLEAN        123 

2.  Forbidden  foods. 
Ezek.  4:14. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Ezek.  4:14;  22:24;   36:17,25,29,33;   37:23;   39:12,14,16,24; 
43:7-9;  44:25. 

4.  Instruction  concerning  clean  and  unclean  is  an  important  part 
of  the  priestly  function. 

Ezek.  22:26 ;  44 : 23. 

5.  Everything  connected  with  religion  must  be  clean. 
Ezek.  22:26;  43:20-26;  44:25;  46:19-24. 

6.  Methods  of  purification. 

Ezek.  36 : 25  ;  43:1 8-26 ;  44 : 26  f . 

§129.  Questions  and  Suggestions. —  Ezekiel's  intermediate  position 
and  the  peculiar  situation  to  which  his  work  is  addressed  make  the 
material  of  his  sermons  especially  interesting. 

1.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  fact  (i)  that  seventy  elders  are 
present,  and  that  the  idols  (/.  e.,  likenesses  of  reptiles  and  abominable 
beasts)  are  being  worshiped ;  (2)  that  the  presiding  priest  was  the  head 
of  one  of  the  animal  clans  (viz.,  the  Cony).     Does  this  indicate  that 
even  in  this  late  period  animal-worship  prevails  ? 

2.  Note  Ezekiel's  contention  concerning  his  own  cleanness,  and 
the  formulation  of  his  idea  of  uncleanness. 

3.  Consider  the  representations  made  by  Ezekiel  of  uncleanness, 
including  that  of  the  land,  and  note  the  various  occasions  which  give 
rise  to  uncleanness. 

4.  Observe  the  part  which  the  priest  is  to  play  in  giving  instruc- 
tion upon  the  subject  of  cleanness  and  uncleanness. 

5.  (i)  Note   that  "clean"  now  means  "holy,"  "unclean"  means 
"common;"  to  fail  to  make  the  proper  distinction  is  to  "profane" 
Jehovah ;  and  (2)  consider  how  this  later  and  more  developed  idea  has 
arisen  out  of  the  earlier.     (3)  Observe,  also,  that  every  act  connected 
with  a  religious  observance  must  be  ceremonially  clean.     (4)  Consider 
the  bearing  on  this  idea  of  the  establishment  of  boiling-houses. 

6.  Consider  the  methods  by  which  purification  from  uncleanness 
might  be  secured. 

§  130.  Constructive  Work. —  Formulate  the  new  phases  and  details 
of  the  idea  of  "clean  and  unclean"  which  appear  in  Ezekiel,  and  dis- 
cuss the  relation  of  all  this  to  Ezekiel's  idea  of  God. 

§131.  The  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the 
Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,, 


124  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(&)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  (c)  in  the  priestly  histories,  e.  g.t  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  Chronicles.10 

1.  Traces  of  totemism. 

Isa.  65  :  4  £.;  66  :  17  ;  Lev.  19  :  28. 

2.  Forbidden  food. 

Lev.    17  : 10-16  ;    ig  :a6  ;     n  :  1-23,  29  f.,   41-47  ;    7  : 16-19  ;    *9  •  7  I 
7  : 22-27  I  3  : 14~I7  I  Gen.  9:3  f.;  Isa.  65  :  4  f.;  Dan.  i  :  8. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Lev.,  chaps.  13  and  15  ;  20  :  20  f.;  chap.  12  ;  18  :  ig  ;  19  : 11-13  ;  Numb. 

5  :  19,  28  ;  31  :  13  ff.;  35  :  33  f.;  5  : 1-4  ;    2  Chron.  34  :  5  ;    Ezra  9:11; 
Neh.  13  :  9,  30  ;  Josh.  22  :  17  ;  Isa.  65  :  4  f.;  Dan.  i  :  8. 

4.  Uncleanness  is  contagious. 

Lev.   13:45!;    14:46!;  15:4-12,  19-23,  26!;    ii  :  8,    24-28,  31-40; 
22  14-6  ;  5  :a  f.;  7  :  19  ;  6  : 10  f.,  27-30;  19  :7~i6,  22  ;   Hag.  2  :  10-14. 

5.  Methods  of  purification. 

Lev.,  chaps.  14,  15  ;  12  :  6-8  ;  6 :  27  f.;  16:19  ;  Numb.,  chap.  19  ;  6  : 10-21 ; 
35  =33  f-1  8  :  1-21  ;  31  :  13-24. 

6.  Everything  connected  with  religious  acts  must  be  clean. 

Lev.    10:14;    27:11,   27;    chap.  21;    22:1-25;    7:19^-21;   4:11!.; 

6  :  10  f.;    16  : 19  ;    Numb.   6  :  6-9  ;    18  :  n,   15  ;  8  : 1-21  ;  Exod.  29  :  36  ; 
2  Chron.  23  :  19  ;    30  :  17-20  ;    29  :  15  f.,   18  f.;    Neh.  13  :  9,  22  ;    Isa. 
66  :  20. 

7.  Exemption  from  the  requirement  of  cleanness  is  made  in  the 
case  of  the  Passover. 

2  Chron.  30  :  17-20  ;  Numb.  9  :  6-14. 

8.  Non-Israelitish  land  is  unclean,  and  Israel's  land  also  is  unclean. 
Josh.  22  :  19  ;  Ezra  9:11;  Numb.  35  :  33  f.;  Zech.  13:1  f. 

9.  All  foreigners  are  unclean. 

Isa.  35  :  8  ;  Ezra  9:11  ;  Neh.  13  :  30. 

10.  Instruction  as  to  clean  and  unclean  is  an   important  part   of 
priestly  functions. 

Lev.  10  :  10  f. ;  20  :  25  f . 

11.  Traces  of  ancestor-worship. 
Lev.  19  :  28,  32. 

§  132.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

i.  Observe  (i)  that  the  old  totem-sacrifice  still  survives  in  the 
sacrificial  eating  of  swine,  mice,  and  other  abominable  animals ;  did 
they  eat  these  because  they  thought  that  in  so  doing  they  were  eating 
the  flesh  of  the  deity,  and  that  this  meant  participation  in  the  virtues 

10  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Levitical  Code  of  laws. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         125 

of  the  deity,  as  well  as  in  the  mystic  life  of  the  tribe  ?  (2)  that  the 
old  customs  of  cutting  the  flesh  and  of  tattooing  exist ;  were  these 
associated  with  the  old  idea  of  ancestor-worship,  and  was  ancestor- 
worship  connected  with  totemism  ? 

2.  (i)  Classify  according  to  the  later  usage,  the  various  kinds  of 
food  forbidden  ;  and  (2)  compare  closely  the  lists  of  clean  and  unclean 
animals  given  in  Leviticus  with  that  of  Deuteronomy  (see  §§125,  2, 
and  126,  2);  (3)  note  what  is  implied  in  the  case  of  Daniel   and  his 
companions. 

3.  Note  and  classify  the  sources  of  uncleanness  as  they  are  indi- 
cated in  the  writings  of  this  period. 

4.  Consider  (i)  the  various  cases  of  uncleanness  (e.  g.,  leprosy, 
plague,  bodily  issue,  unclean  food,  etc.),  and  the  fact  that  a  person  or 
object,  when  brought  into  contact  with  an  unclean  thing,  itself  became 
unclean.     (2)  What  was  the  underlying  thought  of  this  usage,  and  its 
practical  working?     (3)  In  what  way  did  a  holy  thing,  when  brought 
into  contact  with  persons  or  objects,  convey  its  holiness  to  them  ? 

5.  Arrange  and  classify  the  various  ways  adopted  in  this  period  for 
securing  purification  from  uncleanness,  and  compare  them  in  general 
with  the  methods  of  the  middle  period. 

6.  Consider  now  the  extreme  emphasis  laid  upon  ceremonial  clean- 
ness :  (i )  the  injunctions  to  this  end ;  (2)  the  historical  facts  cited ;  (3) 
the  practical  working  out  of  these  commands  ;  (4)  the  rigidity  of  the 
ceremonial  as  now  maintained,  in  comparison  with  that  of  earlier  days 
and  other  peoples  ;  (5)  the  explanation  of  the  origin  of  this  rigid  cere- 
monial, viz.,  the  desire  to  secure  the  favor  of  God  and  the  fulfilment  of 
the  prophetic  promises  (which,  for  the  most  part,  still  remained  unful- 
filled) by  bringing  the  individual  Israelite  into  such  a  state  of  piety 
and  obedience  as  would  literally  compel  God   to  fulfil   his  promises  ; 
(6)  the  relation  to  all  this  ceremonial  of  the  highly  spiritual  element 
found  in  the  Psalter,  which  was  largely  the  product  of  this  period  ;  (7) 
the  conception  of  God  which  was  implied  in  this  ceremonial,  which, 
indeed,  permeated  the  ceremonial. 

7.  Consider  (i)  the  exemption  from  ceremonial  cleanness  made  in 
the  case  of  the  Passover  feast,  and  (2)  the  explanation  of  it  ;  (3)  the 
historical  case  cited  in  2  Chron.  30  :  17-20. 

8.  Observe  that  (i)  the  idea  of  the  uncleanness  of  non-Israelitish 
land  still  prevails;   and  also   that   (2)  the  land    of   Israel  "itself  has 
become  unclean ;  but  (3)  for  what  reason  ? 

9.  Note  that  the  spirit  of  exclusivism  has  become  so  strong  that 


126  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

all  foreigners  are  regarded  as  unclean.  Consider  the  part  played  by 
this  idea  in  the  conflict  which  later  arose  between  Judaism  and  Hel- 
lenism. 

io-  Observe  (i)  that  it  is  now  a  most  important  function  of  the 
priest  to  give  instruction  concerning  the  clean  and  unclean,  and  con- 
sider (2)  how  difficult  it  must  have  been  to  educate  all  the  people  in 
this  regard,  in  view  of  the  great  multitude  of  details  involved;  and 
(3)  the  general  effect  upon  the  priesthood  of  such  an  occupation  of 
their  time  and  attention. 

ii.  Is  there  still  a  survival  of  the  old  tendency  toward  ancestor- 
worship  in  (i)  the  custom  of  cutting  themselves  for  the  dead,  which  is 
prohibited,  and  in  (2)  the  special  command  to  revere  the  old  men  ? 

§133.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  show 
the  new  points  which  characterize  the  later  period  in  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  the  clean  and  unclean. 

§  1 34.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

HENRY  HAYMAN,  articles  "  Unclean  Meats  "  and  "  Uncleanness,"  SMITH'S  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  ad  ed.  1893);  EWALD,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed. 
1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  144-60;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869, 
transl.  1892),  Vol.  II,  pp.  65-78;  J.  F.  McLENNAN,  Fortnightly  Review,  1869  f.; 
KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874  f.),  Vol.  II,  pp.  94-7;  KALISCH, 
Commentary  on  Leviticus,  Part  II  (1871),  pp.  1-163  '•>  OEHLER,  Old  Testament  Theology 
(ist  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1891,  transl.  1883),  §§  142  f.;  E.  B.  TYLOR,  Primitive  Culture 
(1871,  2d  ed.  1873),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Totem  Ancestors.;"  IDEM,  Early  History  of 
Mankind  (^  ed.  1878),  pp.  284  f.;  SPENCER,  Principles  of  Sociology  (1879),  Vol.  I, 
p.  367;  W.  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  "Animal  Worship  and  Animal  Tribes  among  the 
Arabs  and  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Journal  of  Philology,  Vol.  IX  (1880),  pp.  75  ff.; 
IDEM,  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (ist  ed.  1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  p.  366;  IDEM, 
Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (1885),  chap,  vii ;  SCHURER,  A  History  of  the 
Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (1885,  transl.  1890),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Clean 
and  Unclean;"  JOSEPH  JACOBS,  "Are  there  Totem-Clans  in  the  Old  Testament?" 
Proceedingsof  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaology,VQ\.  VIII  (1885),  pp.  39-41;  ANDREW 
LANG,  Custom  and  Myth  (2d  ed.  1885),  pp.  260  ff.;  PIEPENBRING,  The  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1886,  transl.  1893),  pp.  73-9;  ANDREW  LANG,  Myth,  Ritual  and 
Religion  (ist  ed.  1887,  ad  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Tabu,"  "  Totem,"  etc.;  SAYCE^ 
Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  Illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Clean  and  Unclean," 
"Totemism;"  BENNETT,  Diseases  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1887,  3d  ed.  1896);  J.  G. 
FRAZER,  Totemism  (with  numerous  references  to  literature;  1887);  IDEM,  articles 
"Taboo"  and  "Totemism,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1887);  W.  R.  SMITH,  article 
"Sacrifice,"  ibid.  (1887),  Vol.  XXI,  p.  135;  IDEM,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (ist  ed. 
1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  additional  notes  A,  B,  C,  and  I;  J.  G.  FRAZER,  Golden 
Bough  (1890),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Taboo,"  "Totem,"  etc.;  F.  W.  DAVIES,  "Bible 
Leprosy,"  Old  and  New  Testament  Student,  Vol.  XI  (1890),  pp.  142-25; 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         127 

McCLlNTOCK  AND  STRONG'S  Cyclopedia  of  Biblical,  Theological  and  Ecclesias- 
tical Literature,  articles  on  "Unclean"  and  "  Uncleanness "  (1891);  J.  LUBBOCK, 
Origin  of  Civilization  (1892),  p.  260  ;  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp.  473  ff.;  MENZIES,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  PP- 
55.  7*i  I3l»  275  J  DRIVER,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy 
(1895),  pp.  70,  164,  291  f.;  J.  F.  McLENNAN,  Studies  in  Ancient  History  (1896), 
pp.  492-569;  FARNELL,  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  Vol.  I  (1896)  pp.  88-101 ; 
WIEDEMANN,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Animals," 
etc.;  J.  HASTINGS,  article  "  Clean,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I  (1898); 
MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  pp.  397  £.,  662!.; 
J.  G.  FRAZER,  "  The  Origin  of  Totemism,"  Fortnightly  Review,  April  and  May,  1899 ; 
BUDGE,  Egyptian  Magic  (1899),  pp.  232  ff.;  PAUL  HAUPT,  "Medical  and  Hygienic 
Features  of  the  Bible,"  The  Independent,  New  York,  July  13,  1899,  pp.  1906  f.;  G.  A. 
SIMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  Unclean,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1899);  F.  J.  SCHAMBERG, 
"The  Nature  of  the  Leprosy  of  the  Bible,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIII  (1899),  pp. 
162-9  ;  PAUL  HAUPT,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual,"  Journal  of  Bib- 
lical Literature,  Vol.  XIX  (1901),  p.  60,  and  note  113;  McCuRDY,  article  "  Animal- 
Worship,"  Jewish  Encyclopedia  (1901);  ANDREW  LANG,  Magic  and  Religion  (1901), 
pp.  257-69  ;  R.  G.  MURISON,  "  Totemism  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Biblical  World,  Vol. 
XVIII  (1901),  pp.  176-84  ;  E.  CLODD,  Myths  and  Dreams,  pp.  99  f. 

SPENCER,  De  legibus Hebraeorum  ritualibus  (1727);  HEBENSTREIT,  De  euro  sanit. 
publ.  (1783),  Vol.  II,  pp.  15  f.;  BEYER,  De  haemorrh.  ex  lege  Mosis  impuris  (1792); 
BLEEK,  "  Beitrage  zu  den  Forschungen  iiber  den  Pentateuch,"  Theologische  Studien 
und  Kritiken,  1831,  pp.  498  f.;  BAHR,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Kultus  (1839),  Vol.  II, 
pp.  159  ff.,  462  ff.;  SOMMER,  Biblische  Abhandlungen  (1846),  pp.  183-367;  SAALSCHUTZ, 
Das  mosaische  Recht  mit  Beriicksichtigung  des  spdtern  judischen  (ist  ed.  1846,  1848; 
2d  ed.  1853),  chaps.  22-32  ;  KURTZ,  "Ueber  die  symbolische  Dignitat  des  in  Num.  19 
zur  Tilgung  der  Todesunreinigkeit  verordneten  Ritus,"  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1846,  pp.  629  ff.;  DANIELSSEN  ET  BOECK,  Traite  de  la  Spedalskhed  [Nor- 
wegian =  leprosy]  ou  Elephantiasis  des  Grecs  (transl.  from  the  Norwegian,  1847); 
CHWOLSOHN,  Die  Ssabier  und  der  Ssabismus  (1856),  Vol.  I,  pp.  146  ff.;  C.  WOLFF, 
"  Die  Lepra  Arabum,"  in  VIRCHOW'S  Archiv  fiir  path.  Anatomie  und  Physiologic, 
Vol.  XXVI  (1861);  S.  FiNALY,  "Ueber  die  wahre  Bedeutung  des  Aussatzes  in  der 
Bibel,"  Archiv  fiir  Dermatologie  und  Syphilidologie  (1870);  SCHENKEL,  article 
"  Reinigkeit,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel- Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  KOHLER,  Lehrbuch  der 
biblischen  Geschichte,  Vol.  I  (1875),  pp.  409-19;  L.  KOTELMANN,  Die  Geburtshilfe  bei 
den  alien  Hebrdern  (1876);  BAUDISSIN,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichie, 
Vol.  II  (1878),  pp.  ioo  ff.;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  "Die  Aussatztora  des  Leviticus," 
Zeitsch r if t fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  und  kirchliches  Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  3-10; 
E.  KONIG,  article  "  Reinigungen,"  Realencyklopddie  fiir  protestantische  Theologie  und 
Kirche  (2d  ed.  1883);  KAMPHAUSEN,  article  "  Reinigkeit  und  Reinigungen," 
RIEHM'S  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  FRANZ  DELITZSCH, 
article  "  Reinigungsopfer,"  ibid.;  NOLDEKE,  "Robertson  Smith's  Kinship  and  Marriage 
in  Early  Arabia,"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XL 
(1886),  pp.  157-69;  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,Vo\.  I  (1887),  pp.  481  ff.; 
WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  arabischen  Heidentums  (  =  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  III,  1st 
ed.  1887,  2d  ed.  1897),  pp.  52,  106,  156,  176  ff.;  M.  SANDRECZKY,  "Studien  iiber 
Lepra,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Paldstina-Vereins,  Vol.  XVIII  (1895),  pp.  34-40 


128  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(from  the  English  in  The  Lancet,  London,  August  31,  1889);  RIEHM,  Altiestamentliche 
Theologie  (1889),  pp.  124  ff.;  SCHWALLY,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode(i%<)2),  see  Index, 
s.  v.  "  Taboo  "  and  "  Unrein  ;  "  BAENTSCH,  Das  Bundesbuch  (1892),  pp.  105  f.;  G.  N. 
MiJNCH,  Die  Zara'ath  der  hebrdischen  Bibel.  Einleitung  in  der  Geschichte  des  Aussatz, 
in  Dermatologische  Studien,  by  G.  UNNA  (1893);  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d.  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Reinheit,"  "  Tabu," 
"  Totemismus ;"  H.  SCHURTZ,  Die  Speiseverbote  (1893);  A.  EINSLER,  "  Beobachtungen 
uber  d.  Aussatz  im  heiligen  Lande,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Palastina-Vereins,  Vol. 
XVI  (1893),  Heft  4;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebriiischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  n6ff.;  II,  pp.  275-99  ;  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894),  PP-  152,297, 
478-89;  DlLLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  TAeo/ogie  (l8g$),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"  Reinheit,"  "  Unrein,"  etc.;  ZINSSER,  "  Bemerkungen  iiber  den  jetzigen  Stand  der 
Lepraforschungen,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Palastina-Vereins,  Vol.  XVIII  (1895), 
pp.  41-4;  A.\VlE.NER,  Die  judiscAen  Speisegfsetze  (189$);  A.  SACK,  Was  ist  die Zaraath 
der  hebrdischen  Bibel?  (ViRCHOW's  Archiv  fur  path.  Anatomie  und  Physiologie,  Band 
144,  Supplementheft,  1896);  STADE,  Theologische  Litteratur-Zeitung,  1896,  No.  I,  col. 
10;  BERTHOLET,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Fremden  (1896), 
see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Reinheit,"  "  Reinigung ;"  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen 
Religion  (1897),  pp.  24  f.,  30,  42,  104,  193,  221  f.;  FREY,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und 
Seelenkult  im  alien  Israel  (1898),  pp.  173-87;  N.  COHN,  Die  Vorschrift  betreffs 
die  Zar'ath  nach  dem  Kitab  al  Kafi  (1898);  D.  H.  MULLER,  Siidarabische  Altertiimer  im 
kunsthistorischen  Museum  zu  Wien  (1899);  J-  PIKLER  AND  F.  SOMLO,  Der  Ursprung 
des  Totemismus  (1899);  J.  C.  MATTHES,  "  De  begrippen  rein  en  onrein  in  het  Oude 
Testament,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Vo\.  XXXIII  (1899),  pp.  293-318;  J.  HALEVY, 
Revue  semitique,  Vol.  VII  (1899),  pp.  267  ff.;  GRUNEISEN,  Ahnenkultus  und  Urre- 
ligion  Israels  (1900);  EBSTEIN,  Die  Medizin  im  Alien  Testament  (1901). 

See  also  the  treatises  in  the  Mishnah  entitled  Niddah,  Parah,  Tehoroth,  Zabbim, 
Celim,  Miscath  Arlah;  and  the  commentaries  on  Lev.,  chaps.  11-15,  especially  those 
of  DILLMANN  (1880),  BAENTSCH  (1900),  BERTHOLET  (1900),  and  DRIVER  AND 
WHITE  (Polychrome  Bible,  1898). 

§  135.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Consider  the  following  references  to  clean  and  unclean  in  the 
Psalter:    73:1,13;    19:9,12;    51:2,7,10;     24:4;    18:20;    119:9; 
and  summarize  their  teachings. 

2.  Examine    the  following    references    in  the   books  of   Job  and 
Proverbs:  Job  1 1  :  4 ;   33  :  9  ;   17:9;    15  :i4  ff.;   25  14;  9  :  30  ;   37  :  21; 
36: 14;  Prov.  14:4;  16:2;  20  :g  ;  and  also  Eccl.  9:2;  and  summarize 
their  teachings. 

3.  Study  the  allusions  to  clean  and  unclean  in  the  books  of  the 
Maccabees  and  formulate  a  statement  covering  them  :   i  Mace,   i  137, 
46  ff.,  54,  62  f.;  2  :  12;  3  :  51  ;  4:38,  43  f.,  48  f.,  54;   13  =47  f.;  2  Mace, 
i  :  1 8,  33,  36;   2:8,   16,   19;   3:  12  ;  4:  14;   5  :  27  ;  6  :  2,  5,   7  f.,  18  ff.; 
7:1  ff.;  10:3,  5;  ii  :  24;  12  140;  13:8;  14  =  36. 

4.  What,   in    general,  is  the  attitude    of   New  Testament  writers 
toward   the    idea   of   clean    and    unclean   as  gathered   from    a   study 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         I2Q 

of  the  principal  allusions:  Matt.  8 :  2  f.;  10:1,8;  11:5;  12:43; 
23  :  25-27  ;  Mark  i  :  23,  26  f.,  40-44  5  3  :  * i,  3°  5  5  :  2>  8,  13  ;  6:7; 
7:25;  Luke  4  =  27;  5:i2ff.;  6:18;  7:22;  8:29;  4  =  33.  3<5  ; 
9  :  42;  n  :  24,  39,  41  ;  17  :  14,  17  ;  John  15:3;  Acts  5:  16;  8:7  ; 
10:14  f.,  28;  n:8f.;  Rom.  1:24;  6:19;  14:14;  i  Cor.  7:14; 
2Cor.6:i7;  7:1;  12:21;  Gal.  5  :  19  ;  Eph.  4  :  19  ;  5:3,5,26; 
Col.  3:551  Thess.  2:3;  4:7;  Heb.  9:13;  James  4  :  8 ;  2  Pet.  2:10; 
i  John  i  :  7,  9  ? 

5.  Make  a  study  of  the   Hebrew  words  for  "clean,"  viz.,  TZJilp, 
"I'TIB,  in,  TIT ,  and  " unclean,"  viz.,  ff2B  ;  </.  HID^n,  Vpti,  TO^, 

T  "    T  T  "  |    (V    V  I         '        ' 

etc.;  trace  their  usage  in  the  cognate  languages  (especially  Assyrian 
and  Arabic),  and  endeavor  to  determine  their  primary  meaning  and 
their  exact  significance  in  Hebrew  literature. 

See  especially  BAUDISSIN,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Heft  II, 
pp.  1-40;  G.  A.  SIMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  Unclean,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  ZlM- 
MERN,  Beitrage  zur  Assy riologie,  Vol.  I,  p.  105  ;  WHITEHOUSE,  Thinker,  1892,  p.  52; 
and  the  various  lexicons. 

6.  Compare  the  similarities  between    the   usages  connected  with 
clean  and  unclean  and  those  connected  with  the  <fo«  =  Q"in.     How 
may  these  be  most  satisfactorily  explained  ? 

See  §  146,  and  cf.  W.  H.  BENNETT,  article  "  Ban,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

7.  Study  the  phenomena  similar  to  the  Hebrew  "  clean  and  unclean  " 
found  in  other  Semitic  nations,  e.  g.,  the  prohibition  among  the  Syrians 
against  eating  swine;  the  putting  off  of  ordinary  everyday  garments 
while  engaged  in  sacred  acts  at  Mecca  and  other  ancient  Arabic  sanc- 
tuaries ;  the  Arabian  custom  and  method  of  removing  the  impurity  of 
widowhood ;  the  impurity  of  menstruation,  which  is  recognized  by  all 
Semites;  and  the  many  parallels  found  in  Egyptian  customs  and  wor- 
ship.    What  is  the  common  basis  of  all  these  customs  ? 

.  See  especially  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  ad  ed.,  pp.  441-56  ;  W.  MAX 
MiJLLER,  article  "Egypt,"  §19,  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  FRAZER,  articles  "Taboo" 
and  "  Totemism,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

8.  Consider  the  possible  bases  of  classification  of  the  clean  and 
unclean  animals,  birds,  fish,  etc.     Is  the  hygienic  motive  satisfactory  ? 
Is  the  idea  that  certain  things  are  prohibited  because  of  an  instinctive 
feeling  of  abhorrence  for  them  applicable  to  all  cases  ?     Does  the  pro- 
hibition of  certain  things  have  any  connection  with  their  sacrificial  or 
non-sacrificial  character?     Can  certain  cases  be  explained  as  due  to  a 
belief  that  the  animals  in  question  were  inhabited  by  demons  ?     Can 


I3O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

any  clearly  marked  line  of  demarcation  be  drawn  between  clean  and 
unclean  beasts,  etc.?     Is  a  combination  of  motives  probable  ? 

See  especially  DRIVER,  Deuteronomy,  p.  164  ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church,  pp.  365  f.  and  note ;  G.  A.  SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  Unclean," 
Encyclopedia  Biblica;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
116-19. 

9.  Study  the  idea  of  "holiness  "  carefully  in  the  light  of  the  teach- 
ing concerning  "  clean  and  unclean."     Was  it  thought  of  originally 
as  a  relation  sustained  to  the  deity,  or  as  an  inherent  quality  ?     What 
is  the  history  of  the  conception  from  this  point  of  view  ? 

10.  Consider  the  close  relationship  of  the   idea  of  "clean  and 
unclean  "  to  the  idea  of  God,  and  the  mutual  influence  of  the  two 
ideas.     Note  that  in  the  earliest  times  everything  thought  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  deity  was  regarded  as  unclean,  and  that  in  the  later 
period  the  exalted  idea  of  God's  holiness  was  expressed  concretely  by 
a  wide  extension  of  the  circle  of  "  uncleanness."     Trace  the  parallel 
development  of  these  two  conceptions  through  the  course  of  Israel's 
history. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING    PRAYER   AND    RELATED   FORMS   OF 
WORSHIP,    CONSIDERED    COMPARATIVELY. 

§  136.  With  prayer,  offered  at  times  to  secure  deliverance  from 
trouble  or  danger,  at  other  times  to  obtain  the  presence  of  the  deity 
and  his  guidance,  there  may  be  associated,  for  purposes  of  classifica- 
tion, (i)  the  vow,  which  was  a  promise  made  to  the  deity  in  case  of  the 
granting  of  a  request;  (2)  blessings  and  curses,  which  were  prayers  for 
good  or  evil  to  one's  friends  or  enemies;  (3)  the  ban  or  sentence  to 
destruction,  which  was  a  formal  curse  or  anathema;  (4)  the  oath, 
which  was  an  invocation  of  the  deity,  or  a  solemn  statement  in  the 
name  of  the  deity.  The  following  may  also  be  regarded  as  indirectly 
connected  with  prayer,  viz.:  (5)  fasting,  a  means  of  making  impression 
upon  the  deity,  and  thus  securing  favor;  (6)  consultation  through 
oracles,  Urim  and  Thummim,  the  ephod,  and  the  lot,  which  were 
various  means  of  ascertaining  the  divine  will ;  (7)  practice  in  connec- 
tion with  sorcery,  or  witchcraft,  or  magic,  or  divination,  all  of  which 
was,  likewise,  effort  to  communicate  with  the  spirit  or  deity  and  to 
secure  knowledge  of  the  divine  will ;  (8)  mourning  customs,  many  of 
which  had  their  origin  in  the  superstition  that  the  departed  spirit  had 
power  for  evil  or  good  over  those  who  were  living,  a  power  to  be  pro- 
pitiated or  averted  by  certain  acts ;  (9)  circumcision,  which  was  an  act 
of  dedication  to  the  deity. 

It  might  be  said  that  every  act  of  worship  was  really  prayer;  that 
is,  approach  to  the  deity.  Sacrifice,  for  example,  was  acted  prayer. 

§  137.  Prayer. 

i.    The  early  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.1 

(a)  Divine  mercy  and  aid  are  sought  through  prayer. 

Gen.  18  :  22-33  ;  19:18-22;  20  :  7,  i?(E);  25  :  21 ;  30  :6,  I7(E),  22  ; 
32:9-12;  35:3(E);  Exod.  3  : 7,  9 ;  5:22  f.;  8:8,  12,  29  ff.;  9:28  ff.; 
io:i7ff.;  14:10, 15(E);  15:25;  17  : 4,  8-is(E);  32:11-14;  32:30-32 
(E);  Numb.  1 1 : 1-3  (E),  10-15,18;  !2:i3(E);  i4:i3-i9(E);  21:7 
(E);  23  :  io(E);  Josh.  7:6-9;  10:12-14;  24:7(E);  Judg.  10:10, 14  f.; 
15  : 18;  16:28;  i  Sam.  7:8  f.;  15:1 1;  2  Sam.  15:31 ;  24  : 10,  17;  2  Kings 
4:33;  6: 17-20;  19:1,4,14-20. 

1  All  the  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  followed  by  (E). 


132  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Study  different  typical  cases  of  prayer  for  mercy  and  aid,  and  con- 
sider (i)  the  persons  who  are  represented  as  praying;  (2)  the  nature 
of  the  petitions  offered,  e.  g.,  requests  for  healing,  for  children,  for 
relief  from  frogs,  hail,  etc.,  for  rescue  from  Pharaoh,  for  deliverance 
of  Israel  from  immediate  destruction  after  sin  has  been  committed ; 
(3)  the  character  of  the  prayers  —  simple,  informal,  naive;  (4)  the 
basis  on  which  request  is  made;  (5)  the  elements  of  prayer  which 
seem  to  be  lacking  in  these  cases;  (6)  the  indications  of  a  primitive 
stage  of  religious  development;  (7)  the  typical  and  fundamental  ele- 
ments of  prayer  which  are  involved. 

(&)  Divine  presence  and  guidance  are  sought  through  prayer. 

Gen.  24  : 12-14  ;  Exod.  33  :  7-1  i(E);  34  :g  ;  Numb.  10  :  35  f.;  i  Sam. 
8  : 6,  1 8,  21 ;  12: 17  f.;  2  Sam.  7  : 18-29;  I  Kings  3:6-9;  18  :  24-40; 
2  Kings  19:2-7,  15-19. 

Study,  from  the  same  points  of  view,  another  class  of  prayers,  in 
which  request  is  made  for  the  presence  of  the  divine  spirit  and  for  its 
guidance. 

2.    The  middle  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.* 

Deut.  9:18-20,25-29;  10  :  10 ;  26:15;  2  Kings  22:19;  Jer-  3:2II 
10  :  23-25  114:  7-9,  19-22  115: 15-18  ;  1 8  : 19-23;  20  : 12  ;  42  :  1-6; 
Judg.  3:9,15;  4:3;  6:6;  2  Kings  20  :  3  ;  i  Kings  8  :  22-6 1 . 

Consider  (i)  the  circumstances  attending  Moses'  prayers  for  the 
people,  his  fear  of  Jehovah,  the  ground  of  intercession,  the  element  of 
confession,  the  naive  appeal  to  the  estimate  which  strangers  may  make 
of  Jehovah's  ability,  or  of  his  purpose ;  (2)  the  reasons  given  by  the 
prophetess  Huldah  for  Jehovah's  favorable  answer  to  Josiah,  viz., 
humility,  supplication ;  (3)  the  spirit  of  dependence  seen  in  Jeremiah's 
prayer  (10:23-25),  and  its  request;  (4)  Jeremiah's  confession  and 
passionate  appeal  (14  :  7-9, 19-22);  (5)  Jeremiah's  personal  complaints 
(15  : 15-18;  18  : 19-23 ;  20  : 12);  (6)  the  request  of  the  people  that  Jere- 
miah would  pray  for  them,  and  his  consent  (Jer.  42  : 1-6);  (7)  the 
crying  of  Israel  to  Jehovah  in  their  distress ;  (8)  the  basis  of  Heze- 
kiah's  appeal  for  preservation  from  death  (2  Kings  20  :  3);  (9)  Solomon's 
prayer  (i  Kings  8  :  20-53)  at  tne  dedication  of  the  temple  (as  expanded 
and  presented  by  the  Deuteronomic  editor)  —  its  form,  its  contents,  its 
spirit,  its  presuppositions. 

3  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  133 

3.  The  later  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.3 

Gen.  17:18;  Exod.  2:  23!.;  6:  5;  Numb.   16:20-24;  Judg.  20:18, 
23  ;  21:2  f. ;  Ezra  8  :  21  ff.;  9  :5 — 10  : 1  ;  Neh.  1:4-11;  2:4;  4  :  4  f . 
4:9;  5  : 19;  6:9,  14;  9:  5-38  ;  13  :  14,  22,  30;  Isa.  63  :  7 — 64:12. 

Consider  (i)  that  an  ejaculation  (Gen.  17:18),  the  cry  under 
oppression,  is  really  prayer  ;  (2)  the  form  and  thought  of  the  prayer 
ascribed  to  the  congregation  (Numb.  16  :  20-24)  >  (3) tne  various  prayers 
recorded  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  noting  the  form,  the  content,  the 
spirit,  the  entirely  different  tone  as  compared  with  those  of  preceding 
periods ;  (4)  the  exact  particulars  in  which  this  difference  of  tone 
consists. 

§138.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  brief  statement,  covering  (i) 
the  general  content  of  scriptural  prayers ;  (2)  the  peculiarities  of  form  ; 
(3)  the  essential  elements  which  make  up  such  prayers ;  (4)  any  differ- 
ences which  appear  as  characterizing  the  prayers  of  different  periods ; 
(5)  the  place  of  prayer  in  worship ;  (6)  the  usage  of  prayer  (a)  in  the 
Psalms,4  (b}  in  the  wisdom  literature,5  (c)  in  the  apocryphal  books,6  (</) 
in  the  New  Testament,7  (e)  among  Assyro-Babylonians,  Egyptians,  etc.8 

§  139.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

ALFRED  BARRY,  article  "  Prayer,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863, 
2d  ed.  1893) ;  EWALD,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed.  1866,  transl.  1876),  see  Index,  s.v. 
"Prayer,"  etc.;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869,  5th  ed.  1896,  transl. 
1892),  Vol.  I,  pp.  371  f.;  H.  Fox  TALBOT,  "A  Prayer  and  a  Vision,"  Transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol.  I  (1872),  pp.  346  ff.,  and  Records  of  the 
Past,  Vol.  VII  (1876),  pp.  65  ff.;  E.  B.  TYLOR,  Primitive  Culture  (1874),  see  Index, 
s.  v.  "  Prayer,"  "Oracles  ;  "  H.  Fox  TALBOT,  "Assyrian  Sacred  Poetry,"  Records  of  the 
Past,Vo\.  Ill  (1874),  pp.  131-8  ;  A.  H.  SAYCE,  "Fragment  of  an  Assyrian  Prayer  after 
a  Bad  Dream,"  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  IX  (1877),  pp.  149-52;  B.  T.  A.  EVETTS, 
"An  Assyrian  Religious  Text,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Arc haology,  Vol. 
X  (1888),  pp.  478  f.;  D.  G.  LYON,  "Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Royal  Prayers,"  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  1888,  pp.  xciii,  xciv ;  S.  A.  STRONG,  "A 
Prayer  of  Assurbanipal,"  Records  of  the  Past,  new  series,  Vol.  VI  (1892),  pp.  102-6  ; 
MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  pp.  505  f.;  J.  A.  CRAIG, 
"Prayer  of  the  Assyrian  King  Ashurbanipal,"  Hebraica,  Vol.  X  (1893),  PP-  75~87  ; 
MENZIES,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer  ;  "  J.  L.  NEVIUS,  Demon 
Possession  and  Allied  Themes  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer,"  etc.;  JASTROW,  Religion 

3  All  the  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  the  P  document. 
*See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  5  ;  12  ;  51  ;  55  ;  69. 

s  See,  e.  g.,  Job  22  :  27;  33  : 26  ;  41  :  3  ;  42  :  8,  10  ;  Prov.  15:8;  28  :  9. 
6 See,  e.  g,,  I  Mace.  3:44-54;  4:10,30-34,38-40;  5:31-34;  2  Mace.   i:Sf.,  8. 
23-30;  13:10-12;   14:33-36;  15:21-24;  Ecclus.  18:  23;  chap.  51. 

7  Matt.  6  :9  ff.;  17  :  21  ;  21  :  13,  22  ;  23  : 14  ;  John,  chap.  17. 

8  See  literature  cited  in  §  139. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayers,"  etc.;  T.  K.  CHEYNE, 
Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile  (1898),  p.  251;  DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer,  etc.;  "  DAY,  The  Social  Life  of  the  Hebrews 
(1901),  pp.  215  f. 

GASS,  article  "Gebet,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Leecikon,  Vol.  II  (1869);  STADE, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1887),  pp.  487  ff.;  RIEHM'S  Handworterbuch  des 
biblischen  Alterthums  (2d  ed.  1893  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  484  ff.;  J.  A.  KNUDTZON,  Assyrische 
Gebete  an  den  Sonnengott  fur  Staat  und  konigliches  Haus  aus  der  Zeil  Asarhaddons 
und  Assurbanipals,  2  vols.  (1893);  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
geschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Gebet ;  "  BENZINGER,  Hebra- 
ische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp.  462  ff.;  NoWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie, 
Vol.  II  (1894),  pp.  259  ff.;  DILLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie 
(1895),  pp.  184,481;  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  see  Index, 
s.  v.  "Gebet,"  etc.;  F.  BUHL,  article  "Gebet  ira  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie 
fiir  prot.  Theologie  und  Kirche,  Vol.  VI  (1899). 

§  140.  The  Vow. 

1.  The  early  period:  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 

Gen.  1 4  :  2 1  ff. ;  28  : 20  ff.  (E) ;  31:13  (E)  ;  Judg.  1 1  :  29  ff.,  39  ;  1 3  : 4  f ., 
7,14;  I  Sam.  1:11,  21;  2  Sam.  15:7!.;  Numb.  21:1-3  (J) ;  Isa. 
19:  21. 

Examine  the  narratives  which  record  the  vows  of  Abraham,  Jacob, 
Jephthah,  the  Nazirite,  Hannah,  Absalom,  Israel  in  connection  with 
Arad,  as  typical  cases  of  vows,  and  note  in  each  case  ( i )  the  implica- 
tion of  dependence  upon  and  recognition  of  the  power  of  the  deity; 
(2)  the  motive  actuating  the  individual  to  make  the  vow ;  (3)  the  form 
of  expression  employed. 

2.  The  middle  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 
Deut.  12  : 6,  ti,  17,  26 ;  23  : 18,  22  f . ;  Nah.  1:15;  Jer.  44:25. 

Examine  the  references  to  vows  and  note  (i)  the  characteristics  of 
each  case  presented ;  (2)  the  close  association  of  the  vow  with  the  free- 
will offering;  (3)  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  the  harlot's  hire;  (4) 
the  obligation  to  pay  a  vow  once  made ;  (5)  the  making  of  a  vow, 
wholly  voluntary ;  (6)  the  prophetic  point  of  view. 

3.  The  late  period  :    readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.9 

Numb.  6 :  i-2i ;  15:3,8;  29:39;  30:1-16;  Mai.  1:14;  Jon.  1:16; 
2:9;  Lev.  7:16;  27  :  2,  8  ;  22  : 18,  21,  23  ;  23  :  38. 

Examine  the  references  cited  and  note  (i)  the  special  cases  cited; 
(2)  the  increase  in  complexity  of  arrangement ;  (3)  the  details  of  the 
law  of  the  Nazirite ;  (4)  the  circumstances  under  which  the  vow  of  a 

9  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  P  document. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  135 

woman  is  obligatory  or  otherwise ;  (5)  the  distinction  made  between 
the  vow  and  the  free-will  offering. 

§  141.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  the  vow,  which 
will  take  up  (i)  the  religious  and  psychological  basis  of  the  usage;  (2) 
the  various  kinds  of  motives  which  are  seen  to  have  exerted  influence ; 
(3)  the  words  employed  and  their  significance ;  (4)  the  relationship  of 
the  vow  to  the  free-will  offering ;  (5)  the  relation  to  the  oath ;  (6)  the 
modifications  in  usage  which  come  in  later  times;  (7)  the  difference 
in  principle  between  vows  of  devotion  and  vows  of  abstinence ;  (8)  the 
place  of  the  Nazirite  order10  in  Old  Testament  history;  (9)  the  making 
of  vows  among  other  ancient  peoples;"  (10)  the  attitude  of  the 
prophets;  (n)  the  representations  in  the  Psalms;"  (12) the  representa- 
tions in  wisdom  literature;13  (13)  the  representations  in  apocryphal 
literature;14  (14)  the  representations  in  the  New  Testament  ;1S  (15)  the 
relation  to  prayer  and  sacrifice. 

§142.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

H.  W.  PHILLOTT,  article  "  Vows,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  SCHULTZ, 
op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  191  f.,  371  f.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  articles  "Nazarite"  and  "Vow," 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (1875) ;  IDEM,  Rel.  of  Sent.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Vows,"  "Naza- 
rite," etc.;  MENZIES,  op.  cit.,  p.  74 ;  G.  F.  MOORE,  Judges  ("  International  Criti- 
cal Commentary,"  1895),  pp.  232,  279,  380  ff.;  DRIVER,  The  Books  of  Joel  and 
Amos  (Camb.  Bible,  1897),  pp.  152  f.;  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  189,  254;  G.  B.  GRAY, 
"The  Nazirite,"  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  Vol.  I  (1900),  pp.  201  ff.;  D.  EATON, 
article  "Nazirite,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  III. 

VILMAR,  "Die  symbolische  Bedeutung  des  Naziraergeliibdes,"  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1864,  pp.  438  ff.;  SCHRADER,  article  "Gelubde,"  SCHENKEL'S 
Bibel-Lexikon;  .DILLMANN,  article  "Nasiraer,"  ibid.;  OEHLER  AND  ORELLI,  article 
"  Nasiraat,"  Realencyklopddie  (2d  ed.) ;  GRILL,  "  Ueber  Bedeutung  und  Ursprung  des 
Nasiraergeliibdes,"  Jahrbilcher  fur  prot.  Theologie,  1880,  pp.  645  ff.;  MAYBAUM,  Die 
Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums  (1883)  pp.  147-53.  RIEHM,  Hand- 
worterbuch,  articles  "Gelubde"  and  " Nasiraer ;"  GOLDZIHER,  Muhammedanische 
Studien,  Vol.  I  (1888),  pp.  23  f.;  SMEND,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Geliibde;" 
NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  263  ff.;  BENZINGER,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Bann," 
"Gelubde,"  etc.;  DILLMANN,  op.  cit.,  p.  141;  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  87,  107;  BUHL, 
article  "  Gelubde  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  VI. 

10 See  article  "Nazirite"  in  HASTINGS'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  III. 

"See  article  "Vow,"  Encyc.  Brit.;  WELLHAUSEN,  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  117;  JASTROW,  op.  cit.,  pp.  668  f. 

"See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  22:25;  50 : 14;  •  56 : 12 ;  61:5,8;  65:!;  66:13;  76:11; 
116:14,  18;  132:2. 

I3See,  e.  g.,  Eccl.  5  : 4  f.;  Job  22  :  27  ;  Prov.  7  :  14 ;  20  :  25 ;  31 :  2. 

14 See,  e.  g.,  2  Mace.  3  :35  ;  9:i3ff.;  Ecclus.  18:22. 

'SSee,  e.  g.,  Acts  18  : 18;  21 :  23 f. 


136  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  143.  Blessings  and  Cursings. 

1.  The  early  period:    readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.16 

Gen.  3:14,  17;  4:11;  9:25  f.;  12  :  3;  27:27-29,  35  (E),  39  f.  (E); 
48:  15  f.;  49: 1-27;  Exod.  12  132;  21  :i7(E);'7  23  :  21  (E),  25-31  (E); 
Numb.  22:6;  24  :  9  ;  i  Sam.  2  :  20  ;  14  :  24,  28  ;  1 7  :  43  ;  2  Sam.  3  :  28  f.; 
19:  39;  Deut.  33: 1-29  (E);  Judg.  9:57;  21  : 18. 

Study  and  classify  the  material  on  blessings  and  cursings  as  fol- 
lows:  (i)  words  used  in  blessing  and  cursing;  (2)  forms  of  expres- 
sion used,  e.  g.,  Judg.  21  :  18  ;  i  Sam.  2  :  20  ;  Deut.,  chap.  33  ;  (3) 
important  cases  of  blessings  or  cursings,  e.  g.,  (a)  Jacob's  last  words 
(Gen.,  chap.  49),  (b)  Moses'  last  words  (Deut.,  chap.  33),  (c)  David's  curse 
on  Joab  (2  Sam.  3  :  28,  29) ;  (4)  the  peculiar  lack  of  the  moral  element 
in  the  case  of  Esau  (Gen.  27  :  35) ;  (5)  the  cursing  of  a  hostile  nation, 
e.  g.,  by  Balak  (Numb.  22  :  6),  by  Goliath  (i  Sara.  17  :  43) ;  (6)  the  con- 
nection with  the  oath ;  (7)  the  blessing  and  curse  pronounced  in 
connection  with  the  Covenant  Code  (Exod.  23:  21,  25-31). 

2.  The  middle  period :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.18 
Gen.  49  :  25  f.,  28  ;    Deut.  n  :  26-30  ;   27  : 11-26  ;  28  : 1-68  ;  29  : 19-21 ; 
30: i,  7,  19;  Josh.  8:34;   Jer.  29:18;  Ezek.  34:26;  i   Kings   8  : 14  f., 
551.;  cf.  Ps.  68:1-3. 

Make  a  similar  classification  of  the  material  coming  from  the 
middle  period,  noting  as  cases  of  special  interest  (i)  the  arrangement 
for  blessings  and  curses  to  be  announced  from  Mounts  Gerizim  and 
Ebal  (Deut.  27:11-26);  (2)  Joshua's  reading  of  the  blessings  and  the 
curses  (Josh.  8  134);  (3)  the  old  roya\form  of  blessing  (i  Kings  8  : 14  f., 
55  f.);  (4)  a.  form  of  national  blessing  (cf.  Ps.  68:1-3);  (5)  prophetic 
use  of  curse  (Jer.  29  : 18)  and  blessing  (Ezek.  34  126);  (6)  the  blessings 
and  curses  announced  in  connection  with  the  Deuteronomic  Code 
(Deut.  28:3-14,  15-68). 

3.  The  late  period :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.19 

Gen.  28  : 3  f. ;  Lev.  9  : 22 ;  25  : 21 ;  chap.  26  ;  Numb.  5  : 12-31 ;  6  : 22-26 ; 
Neh.  10:29;  J3  :2  I  2  Chron.  34:24;  Isa.  24:6;  Zech.  5:3;  Mai.  2:2; 
3:9;  Pss.  109  ;  Prov.  26  :  2  ;  Dan.  9:11. 

Classify  likewise  the  material  of  the  late  period,  noting  as  cases  of 

16  All  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  followed  by  (E). 
•'This  reference  is  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

18  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 

19  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  137 

special  interest  (i)  Isaac's  blessing  of  Jacob  (P)  (Gen.  28  13  f.);  (2)  the 
priestly  form  of  blessing  (Numb.  6  : 22-26);  (3)  the  forms  of  doxology 
used  in  later  worship  (cf.  Pss.  134;  150);  (4)  the  blessings  and  curses 
announced  in  connection  with  the  Levitical  Code  (Lev.  26:3-12, 
16-45);  (5)  the  thought  even  in  later  times  that  "it  was  worth  while  to 
curse  a  bad  man"  (cf.  Ps.  109);  but  (6)  the  feeling  also  that  only  the 
good  might  be  blessed  (cf.  Ps.  37  :  26),  and  that  causeless  curses  were 
of  no  avail  (cf.  Prov.  26  -.2). 

§144.  Constructive  Work.  —  Prepare  a  statement  on  blessings  and 
cursings,  including  the  following  points:  (i)  the  words  translated 
blessing  and  curse;  (2)  the  forms  of  expression  used ;  (3)  stereotyped 
formulas  of  benediction ;  (4)  the  religious  idea  or  superstition  under- 
lying the  usage  —  was  it  really  a  "spell,  pronounced  by  a  holy  per- 
son "  ?  (5)  how  was  this  usage  related  to  magic  and  sorcery  (cf.  the 
curse-producing  water)?  (6)  the  more  important  patriarchal  blessings 
—  were  they  cursings  as  well  as  blessings?  (7)  the  threefold  classifica- 
tion :  (a)  one  nation  by  another,  (b)  one  individual  by  another,  (c)  as 
attached  to  laws  to  secure  their  better  observance ;  (8)  a  comparison 
of  the  three  sets  of  blessings  and  cursings  connected  respectively  with 
the  Covenant  Code,  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  and  the  Levitical  Code ; 
(9)  a  comparison  of  the  usage  as  it  is  found  in  the  three  periods,  the 
modifications  which  are  made;  (co)  a  comparison  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment representations  on  this  subject20 — are  blessings  and  curses  found 
in  the  speeches  of  Jesus  ?  if  so,  how  are  they  to  be  understood?  (n) 
this  usage  among  the  Arabians;21  (12)  this  usage  among  the  Assyri- 
ans;22 (13)  the  relation  of  this  usage  to  prayer. 

§  145.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

EWALD,  op.  cit.,  pp.  76-9;  SCHULTZ,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  335  ff.,  346  ff.;  BRIGGS, 
Messianic  Prophecy  (1886),  pp.  115-20;  VV.  R.  SMITH,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Early  Arabia  (1887),  pp.  53,  263;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  of  Sent.,  p.  164;  L.  W.  KING, 
Babylonian  Magic  and  Sorcery  (1896);  J.  DENNEY,  article  "Curse,"  HASTINGS'  Dic- 
tionary, Vol.1  (1898);  W.  F.  ADENEY,  article  "Blessing,"  ibid.;  T.  K.  CHEYNE, 
article  "Blessings  and  Cursings,"  Encyc.  Bib.,  Vol.  I  (1899);  HENRY  HAYMAN,  "  The 
Blessing  of  Moses  :  Its  Genesis  and  Structure,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Lan- 
guages and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVII  (1901),  pp.  96-106. 

"oSee,  e.  g.,  Matt.  5  :  44  ;  14:19;  26  :  26  ;  Mark  10 : 16  ;  Luke  2  :  28,  34  ;  9:16; 
24:5of.;  Acts  3:  26;  23:12,14;  Rom.  12  : 14  ;  Gal.  3  : 13  ;  Mark  7  : 10  ;  11:21; 
Matt.  15  :4  ;  25  :4i. 

"  Cf.  GOLDZIHER,  Muhammedanische  Studien. 

32  Cf.  KING,  Babylonian  Magic  and  Sorcery,  passim. 


138  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

MERX,  articles  "  Fluch  "  and  "  Fluchwasser,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  II 
(1869);  SCHENKEL,  article  "Segen,"  Bibcl-Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  BURGER,  article 
"Segen,  Segnung,"  Realencyklopddie,  2d  ed.,  Vol.  XIV  (1884);  RIEHM,  article 
"Fluch,"  Handworterbuch  des  bibl.  Alterthums  (1884);  WELLHAUSEN,  op.  cit.,  p.  126; 
SCHWALLY,  "  Miscellen,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XI 
(1891),  pp.  170  ff.;  NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  251  f.,  261  f.;  BENZINGER,  op.  cit,, 
p.  146;  MA.RTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  91,  116. 

§146.  The  Ban. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  22:19;  (E);33  Numb.  2i:2(J);  Josh.  8:26(E);  Judg.  1:17; 
21:11;  i  Sam.  15:3,  8,  15,  18,  20. 

2.  The  middle  period.*4 

Josh.  2:10;  6:18;  10:28,  35,  40;  11:11  f.,  21;  Mic.  4:13;  Isa. 
43:28;  Deut.  2:34;  3:6;  7:2,  26;  13:17^;  20:17;  Jer.  25:9; 
50:21,  26;  51:3. 

3.  The  late  period.*5 

Isa.  34  :  2,  5  ;  Mai.  4:6;  Lev.  27  :  21,  28 f.;  Numb.  18  : 14  ;  Isa.  11:15  ; 
Zech.  14:11;  i  Chron.  2:7;  4:41;  2  Chron.  32:14;  Ezra  i  o :  8  ;  Dan. 
11:44. 

Examine  the  passages  cited  in  the  various  periods,  and  classify  the 
material  thus  gathered  as  follows :  (i)  words  used  to  mean  dan  or 
destruction,  and  their  significance ;  (2)  classes  of  persons  or  objects  sub- 
ject to  ban,  e.g.,  (a)  idols,  (£)  individuals  regarded  as  enemies  of  the 
nation,  (c)  cities  or  nations  regarded  as  hostile  (the  Canaanites),  (d) 
individuals  personally  objectionable,  (i)  metals;  (3)  the  regulations  at 
various  times  relating  to  the  ban  ;  (4)  the  modifications  which  are  made 
from  period  to  period,  e.  g.,  Josh.  6  :  24 ;  Numb.  18:14;  Ezek.  44 : 29. 

§  147.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  the  ban,  taking 
up  (i)  the  sociological  basis;  (2)  its  relationship  (a)  to  the  vow,  (t>)  to 
the  idea  of  clean  and  unclean,  (*:)  to  taboo ;  (3)  a  classification  of  per- 
sons or  things  liable  to  the  ban;  (4)  the  changes  which  came  in  later 
times ;  (5)  the  attitude  of  the  prophets ;  (6)  the  non-appearance  of  the 
term  in  the  Psalms  and  in  the  wisdom  literature ;  (7)  the  New  Testa- 
ment development  of  the  idea  (cf.  i  Cor.  16:22);  (8)  the  place  of  the 
idea  in  other  Semitic  nations  (cf.  Moab,  Arabia,  and  Assyria).*6 

*3  This  reference  is  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

84  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy. 

as  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 

**  Cf.  Mesha  Inscription,  line  17  ;  VON  TORNAUW,  Zeitsch.  d.  Deutschen  Morgen- 
Idndischen  Geselhchaft,  Vol.  XXXVI,  pp.  297  ff.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  ofSem.,  Index,  s.  v. 
"  Ban; "  STADE,  Gesch.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  490  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  139 

§  148.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

EWALD,  Antiquities,  pp.  75-8  ;  SCHULTZ,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  390  ;  II,  p.  87  ;  W.  R. 
SMITH,  Rel.  of  Sem.,  pp.  150, 371,  453  ;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the 
Books  of  Samuel  (1890),  pp.  100  ff.;  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments 
(1895-1901),  §  550;  J.  DENNEY,  article  "Curse,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  I;  W. 
H.  BENNETT,  article  "Ban,"  Encyc.  Bib.,  Vol.  I;  DAY,  op.  cit.,  pp.  180,  212  f. 

MERX,  article  "Bann,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,Vo\.  I  (1869);  WEBER,  Die 
Lehren  des  Talmud  (1880),  pp.  138  ff.;  VON  TORNAUW,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Mor- 
genlandischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1882),  pp.  297  ff.;  STADE,  Geschichte,  Vol.  I 
(1887),  p.  490;  SMEND,  op.  cit.,  pp.  21,  39,  147  f.,  288  ;  NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
371  f.;  II,  pp.  266-9  ;  BENZINGER,  op.  cit.,  p.  363  ;  DILLMANN,  op.  cit.,  pp.  45,  126, 
149  ;  BERTHOLET,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Fremden  (1896), 
pp.  10,  89;  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  31,  39,  47  f.;  S.  MANDL,  Der  Bann  (1898). 

§  149.  Oaths. 

1.  The  early  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.27 
Gen.  14  :22  ;  15  :8-u,  17  f.;  21:22-24  (E);  22: 15  (JE);  24  : 1-3,  27; 
25  :  33  (E);  26:3  (JE),  26-31  ;  31  :  53  (E);   42:is(E);   47:29;   50:25 
(E);  Exod.  13:  ig(E);  Josh.  2  :  12-14,  20  ;  6  :  26  ;  Judg.  21:1;  i  Sam. 
14:24-30,  39,   44  f-;    19:6;    24:21;    30:15;    2  Sam.  3:9f.;   19:23; 
2 1  :  i  f .,  7  ;  i  Kings  i  :  1 3,  1 7,  30,  5 1  f. ;  2  :  23  f .,  36-46. 

Examine  and  classify  the  cases  of  oaths  cited,  determining,  in  each 
case,  (i)  whether  it  is  an  oath  sworn  by  man  to  man,  by  God  to  man, 
or  by  man  to  God  ;  (2)  the  ritual  of  the  oath,  whether,  for  example, 
accompanied  by  sacrifice  of  certain  victims,  by  taking  hold  of  the 
thigh,  by  stretching  upward  the  hand ;  (3)  the  penalty  expected  or 
prescribed  in  case  of  the  violation  of  the  oath ;  (4)  any  specially  inter- 
esting uses  of  or  usages  in  connection  with  the  oath,  e.  g.,  Abraham's 
oath  to  Melchizedek,  the  dividing  of  the  animals  (Gen.  15  :  10),  the 
treaty  between  Jacob  and  Laban  (Gen.  31  :  44-54),  Rahab  and  the  spies 
(Josh.  2  :  12-14),  Saul's  adjuration  (i  Sam.  14  :  24-30,  39,  44  f.),  David's 
oath  concerning  Solomon  (i  Kings  1:13),  Shimei  and  Solomon 
(i  Kings  2  :  42);  (5)  what  is  prohibited  in  Exod.  20:  7,  thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  Jehovah  thy  God  in  vain  (blasphemy,  perjury,  pro- 
fanity, or  sorcery  and  witchcraft)? 

2.  The  middle  period :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 

Jer.  4:2;  22  :  5  ;  31  133  ;  34  :  i8f.;  38  : 16  ;  Ezek.  17  : 16-19  ;  Deut. 
19  :  igff.28 

Examine  and  classify  as  above,  noting  particularly  points  of  special 
interest  in  connection  with  (i)  false  swearing  (Deut.  19  : 19  ff.);  (2) 

*?  All  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  marked  otherwise,  and 
Gen.  14  :22,  which  is  from  an  independent  source. 

28  This  reference  is  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 


140  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  cutting  of  the  calf  (Jer.  34:18!.);  (3)  the  new  covenant  (Jer. 
31  =33);  (4)  Zedekiah's  oath  (Jer.  38:16);  (5)  breaking  the  covenant 
(Ezek.  17  : 16-19). 

3.  The  late  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.29 

Numb.  5:11-28;  chap.  30;   Josh.  9:15,  igf.;  Judg.  21:5,  7;   Zech. 
5:1  ff.;  Ezra  10  :  5  ;    Neh.  10  :  29  ;   Dan.  12:7. 

Examine  and  classify  as  above,  noting  points  of  special  interest 
in  connection  with  (i)  the  water  of  bitterness  that  causeth  the  curse 
(Numb.  5:iiff.);  (2)  vows  (Numb.,  chap.  30);  (3)  the  oath  to  the 
Gibeonites  (as  described  in  Josh.  9  :  15  f.,  19  f.);  (4)  the  oath  concern- 
ing strange  wives  (Ezra  10  :  2-5);  (5)  the  flying-roll  and  false  swearing 
(Zech.  5  :  1-4);  (6)  the  man  clothed  in  linen  (Dan.  12:7). 

§150.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  upon  the  use  of 
the  oath  among  the  Hebrews,  taking  up  the  following  points  :  (i)  the 
significance  of  the  usual  word  translated  swear,  viz.,  "  to  come  under 
the  influence  of  seven  things;"  (2)  the  ritual;  (3)  the  various  forms  of 
the  oath  ;  (4)  its  irrevocable  character  and  the  penalty  of  its  violation  ; 
(5)  its  sociological  basis ;  (6)  the  significance  of  an  oath  made  by  the 
deity;  (7)  the  meaning  of  the  third  commandment ;  (8)  the  changes 
in  usage  which  may  be  noted  between  the  three  periods  ;  (9)  the  atti- 
tude of  the  prophets;30  (10)  the  representations  concerning  swearing 
in  the  wisdom  literature;31  (n)  the  representations  in  the  apocryphal 
literature;32  (12)  the  attitude  of  the  New  Testament;33  (13)  the  use 
of  the  oath  among  the  Arabs;34  (14)  its  use  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians;  (15)  its  relation  to  prayer.35 

§151.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

H.  W.  PHILLOTT,  article  "Oath,"  SMITH'S  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d 
ed.  1893);  EWALD,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Oath,"  etc.;  SCHULTZ,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II, 
p.  70 ;  E.  B.  TYLOR,  article  "  Oath,"  Encyc.  Brit.  (1875);  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  ofSem.,  pp. 
180  ff.,  480  ;  F.  J.  CoFFiSr,  "  The  Third  Commandment ,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature. 

29  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 

3° See,  e.g.,  Hos.  4:2,  15  ;  10:4  ;  Amos  4:2;  6:8  ;  8  :  7,  14;  Isa.  14  :24;  19:18; 
45 : 23  ;  48 : I ;  54 : 9  ;  62 : 8  ;  65 : 16  ;  Ezek.  21 : 23. 

31  See,  e.  g.,  Eccl.  8:2;  9:2. 

33  See,  e.  g.,  i  Mace.  6  :  61  f.;  7  : 18,  35  ;  2  Mace.  14  :  33-36 ;   Ecclus.  44  : 21. 

» See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  5:33  ff.;  14:7-9;  23:i6ff.;  Mark  6:23,26;  Luke  1:73; 
Acts  2  :  30  ;  23  :  21  ;  Jas.  5  :  12. 

3*  Cf.  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  arab.  Heidenihums,  p.  122 ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion 
of  the  Semites,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Oath." 

35  Cf.  DRIVER,  Deuteronomy,  pp.  94  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  14! 

Vol.  XIX  (1900),  pp.  166-88 ;  DUFF,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Oath  ;  " 
G.  FERRIES,  article  "Oath,"  HASTINGS'  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  DAY,  op. 
cit.,  p.  184. 

SAALSCHUTZ,  Das  mosaische  Recht  (1846),  pp.  615  ff.;  BRUCH,  article  "Bid," 
SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  II  (1869);  RIEHM,  article  "Bid,"  Handworterbuch ; 
WELLHAUSEN,  op.  cit.,  p.  122  ;  SMEND,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Schwur; "  NOWACK, 
op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  262  ff.;  BENZINGER,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Bid  ; "  FREY,  Tod, 
Seelenglaube  und  Seelenkult  (1898),  pp.  108  f.;  BENZINGER,  article  "Bid  bei  den 
Hebraern,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  V  (1898). 

§  152.  Supplementary  Study  on  Fasting  as  a  Means  for  Securing  the 
Divine  Mercy  and  Help. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  34:28(J),  cf.  24:i8(E);  i  Sam.  7:5f.;  31:13;  2  Sam. 
i  :  12  ;  3  :  35  ;  12  :  16-23 ;  i  Kings  21  19,  12,  27. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut.  8:3;  9:9,  18-20,  25-29 ;   10  :  10 ;  Jer.  14:12;  36 :  6,  9. 

3.  The  late  period. 

Judg.  i8:i7(?);  20:26  ff.;  Ezra  8:21-23;  10:6;  Neh.  1:4-11; 
9:1,31;  Esther  4  : 1-3,  16;  Zech  7  :i-7,  18-23;  8: 19;  Isa.  58  13  ff.; 
i  Chron.  10:12;  2  Chron.  20  : 3  ;  Joel  1:14;  2:1 2,  15;  Jon.  3:5; 
Dan.  9:3;  Lev.  1 6  :  29,  3 1 .3fi 

§  153.     Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Consider  (i)  the  reason  assigned  by  David  in  2  Sam.  12:22  for 
fasting,  viz.,  to  secure  Jehovah's  pity;  (2)  the  fasting  of  Moses  on 
Sinai  (Exod.  34 :  28  ;  Deut.  9  :  9)  as  a  preparation  for  an  important  act, 
the  receiving  of  the  law;  (3)  the  fasting  of  Elijah  (i  Kings  19  :  8  ff.)  as  a 
preparation  for  communion  with  God;  (4)  the  fasting  of  the  men  of 
Jabesh  for  Saul  (i  Sam.  31  :  13),  and  of  David  for  Saul  (2  Sam.  i :  12), 
that  is,  in  mourning  for  the  dead  (cf.  2  Sam.  3:35);  and  determine 
the  original  meaning  of  the  act,  /'.  e.,  an  explanation  with  which  these 
various  cases  may  be  connected;  is  it  to  raise  the  pity  of  the  deity?  or 
in  preparation  for  a  sacrificial  meal  ?  37 

Consider  the  various  cases  of  fasting  cited  and  note  (i)  the  motive 
or  purpose  in  each  case,  e.  g.,  David,  Ahab,  Nehemiah,  Ezra ;  (2) 
whether  they  were  private  or  public  (cf.,  in  earlier  and  middle  periods,  i 
Kings  21  :g  ff.;  Isa.  i  :  13^  (Sept.);  Jer.  36  :6  ff.;  and,  in  later  period, 
Joel  i  :  13  f.;  2  Chron.  20  :  3);  (3)  the  change  by  which  the  act  becomes 
spiritualized  (cf.  Ahab's  case,  i  Kings  21:29);  (4)  the  connection 
between  fasting  and  penitence  (cf.  i  Sam.  7:6;  Neh.  9:1);  (5)  the 

36This  reference  is  from  the  Priestly  Code. 

37  W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  p.  434. 


142  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

circumstances  which  led  to  greater  importance  being  given  to  fasting, 
and  the  changes  in  frequency  of  the  act  and  in  meaning  which  came 
in  the  later  period;  (6)  the  conception  which  makes  it  a  "meritorious 
work,"  and  the  prophets'  attitude  toward  this  (Isa.  58  : 3  ff .;  Zech.  7  :  5  f.). 

Consider  the  various  occasions  on  which,  in  the  later  period,  public 
fasting  was  observed  and  the  events  thereby  commemorated  :  (i)  in  the 
fourth  month,  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  52  : 6,  7);  (2)  in  the  fifth 
month,  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  city  (Jer.  52:12  f.);  (3)  in 
the  seventh  month,  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (Jer.  41:1  ff.);  (4)  in  the 
tenth  month,  the  beginning  of  the  siege  (Jer.  52  14)  (cf.  Zech.  7  :  1-7, 
18-23);  (5)  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.,  chap.  16),  noting  (a)  that  this 
is  the  only  fast  required  by  the  laws,  (ft)  that  there  is  no  allusion  to  its 
observance  in  any  of  the  historical  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  (c) 
the  purpose  of  the  day,  (</)  its  relation  to  the  religious  thought  and  spirit 
of  the  later  times ;  (6)  the  thirteenth  of  Adar,  the  case  of  Haman. 

Consider  the  usage  of  fasting  as  referred  to  (i)  in  the  Psalms;38 
(2)  in  the  apocryphal  literature;39  (3)  in  the  New  Testament;40  (4) 
among  other  Semitic  nations.41 

§  154.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

SAMUEL  CLARK,  article  "  Atonement,  Day  of ,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(ist  ed.  1863,  ad  ed.  1893);  SCHULTZ,  op,  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  367  ff.,  372,  402  ff.,  431; 
OEHLER,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1891,  trans).  1883),  §§  140  f.; 
EDERSHEIM,  The  Temple,  its  Ministry  and  Services  (1874),  pp.  263-88;  WELLHAU- 
SEN,  Prolegomena,  pp.  110-12;  J.  S.  BLACK,  article  "Fasting,"  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica,  Vol.  IX  (1879);  KUENEN,  The  Hexaleuch  (2d  ed.  1885,  transl.  1886),  pp.  86, 
312 ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  of  Sem.,  pp.  303,  388  ff.,  433  f.;  MONTEFIORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  509  f.; 
C.  J.  BALL,  article  "  Fasting  and  Fasts,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893) ; 
H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (1894),  pp.  186,  286  ff.,  383; 
McCuRDY,  op.  cit.,  §§  1116,  1118,  1346 n.;  S.  R.  DRIVER  AND  H.  A.  WHITE,  article 
"Atonement,  Day  of,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  I  (1898)  ;  E.  E.  HARDING,  article 
"Feasts  and  Fasts,"  ibid.,  Vol.  I  (1898),  pp.  862  f.;  CHEYNE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  9-11;  M. 
JASTROW,  op.  cit.,  p.  688 ;  BENZINGER  AND  CHEYNE,  article  "Atonement,  Day  of," 
Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I  (1899);  BENZINGER,  article  "Fasting,  Fasts,"  Ency- 
clopedia Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901) ;  OTTLEY,  A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Roman 
Period  (1901),  pp.  305  f. 

38  See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  35  : 13  ;  69  : 10 ;   109  : 24. 

39  See,  e.g.,  I  Mace.  3  : 44-54  ;  Ecclus.  34  :26. 

40  See,  e.g.,  Matt.  4:2;  6  : 16  ff.;  9  :  14  f.;  17:21;   Marlc2:i8ff.;   9:29;  Luke 
2  : 37  5  5  =  33  ff-5  18  : 12  ;  Acts  10  :  30  ;  13:2  f.;  14  :  23  ;  27  : 9,  33  ;   I  Cor.  7:5;  2  Cor. 
6:5;   1 1  :  27. 

41  See,  e.  g.,  the  references  to  the  works  of  W.  R.  Smith,  Wellhausen,  Jastrow, 
and  Black  cited  in  §  154. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  143 

HOLTZMANN,  article  "Fasten,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  II  (1869); 
ORELLI,  article  "  Versohnungsfest,"  Realencyklopddie  (2d  ed.  1875);  H,  OORT, 
"De  groote  Verzoendag,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol.  X  (1876),  pp.  142-65;  D. 
HOFFMANN,  Berliner's  Magazin,  1876,  pp.  I  ff.;  DELITZSCH,  Zeitschriftfilr  kirchliche 
Wissenschaft  und  kirchliches  Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  173-83;  J.  DERENBOURG, 
"Essai  de  restitution  de  1'ancienne  redaction  de  Massdchet  Kippourim,"  Revue  des 
itudes  juives,  No.  1 1  (1883),  pp.  41-80  ;  ADLER,  "  Der  Versohnungstag  in  der  Bibel, 
sein  Ursprung  und  seine  Bedeutung,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft, 
Vol.  Ill  (1883),  pp.  178-84;  KUENEN,  Theologisch  Tijdsckrift,  Vol.  XVII  (1883),  pp. 
207-12;  RIEHM,  article  "Fasten,"  Handivbrterbuch,  Vol.  I  (1884);  DELITZSCH, 
article  "Versohnungstag,"  RIEHM'S  Handwbrterbuch,  Vol.  II  (1884);  STADE,  Ge- 
schichte,Vo\.  II  (1888),  pp.  182,  258  ff.;  BENZINGER,  "Das  Gesetz  iiber  den  grossen 
Versohnungstag,  Lev.  XVI,"  Zeitschrifl fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IX 
(1889),  pp.  65-88;  SCHWALLY,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode  (1892),  pp.  26  ff.;  SMEND, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  142,  319,  330  ff.,  396;  NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  270  ff.;  BENZINGER, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  165,  464,  477  ;  DILLMANN,  op.  cit.,  p.  184  ;  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  234,  283  f.; 
BUHL,  "Fasten  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  V  (1898) ;  FREY, 
Tod,  Seelenglaube  und  Seelenkult  im  alten  Israel  (1898),  pp.  37,  81-5,  117. 

§155.  Supplementary  Study  on  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through 
Oracles,  Urim  and  Thummim,  the  Ephod,  the  Lot. 

1.  The  early  period. 

(a)  Oracles. — Gen.  24  : 12-14  (J);  25:221.  (J);  Judg.  i :  i  ;   18:51.;  i  Sam. 
10  :  22  ;  14  :  19,  37  ;  23  :  2,  4,  ioff.;  28  :  6  ;  30  :  7  f.;  2  Sam.  2:1;  5  : 19, 
23!.;    16:23;    zi:if.;   2  Kings  8  : 7  ff . ;   Numb.  24  :  3,  15  ;    Isa.  15:1; 
Amos  2:11,  1 6. 

(b)  Urim  and  Thummim. — i  Sam.  14  :  4if.;  28  :  4-6 ;  22  : 10,  13  ;  23  :  2,  4, 
6,  9-12  ;  30  :  7  ;  2  Sam.  2:1;  5  :  19,  23f.;  21:1;  Deut.  33  :  8  (E). 

(c)  The  ephod. — Judg.  8:27^,-  17:5;  18:14,20;  i  Sam.  14:18;  21:91.; 
23  :6,  gff.;  3o:7f.;  Hos.  3  =  4. 

(</)  The  lot. — Josh.  1 6  : 1  (J);  17:14,  1 7  (J);  Judg.  1:3;  20  :  9  ;  Isa.  17:14; 
Mic.  2:  5. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

(a)  Oracles. — Mic.  4:6;  5:9;  Nah.  2:13;  Zeph.  1:2;  Ezek.  5  :  1 1  ;  1 1 : 8, 
21  ;  Jer.  1:8;  2:3. 

(b)  The  ephod.— Deut.  2  : 28  ;  Judg.  8  :  27  £. 

(f)  Thelot.— Josh.  18:6,8,  io(Rd);  153.34:17;  Jer.  13:25;  Ezek.  24:6; 
Obad.  1 1  ;    Nah.  3:10;    Deut.  32  : 9. 

3.  The  late  period.4* 

(a)  Oracles. — Joel    2:12;    Hag.   1:9;  2:4;     Zech.    1:3;    3:9;    10:12; 

12:1;   Mai.  1:2;   Pss.  36:1;   110:1. 
(V)  Urim  and   Thummim. — Exod.    28:30;     Lev.    8:8;    Numb.    27:21; 

Ezra  2  -.63  ;  Neh.  7  :  65. 

**  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 


144  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(c)  The  lot. — Lev.  16  :  8-10  ;  Numb.  26  :  55  f.;  33  :  54 ;  34  : 13  ;  36  :  a  f.; 
Josh.  14:2;  15:1;  17:1;  19  :  i,  10,  17,  24,  32,  40,  51  ;  21  : 4,  5  f.,  8, 
10,40;  i  Chron.  6  :  54,  61,  63,  65  ;  16:18;  24:5,7,31;  25:8f.; 
26:13!.;  Neh.  10:34  ;  ii :  i  ;  Esther  3  :  7;  9  :  24  ;  Isa.  57  :6  ;  Joel 
3:3;  Jon.  1:7;  Dan.  12:  13. 

§  156.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Examine  the  various  means  of  consultation  with  the  deity  which 
seem  to  have  been  recognized  as  legitimate  and  proper,  viz.,  oracles, 
Urim  and  Thummim,  ephod,  and  lot ;  note  the  instances  cited  of 
each,  and  consider  (i)  the  various  circumstances  under  which  such 
consultation  is  held;  (2)  the  underlying  motive  in  each  case;  (3)  the 
relative  frequency  in  the  different  periods ;  (4)  the  differences  (if  any) 
between  the  usages  named ;  (5)  the  various  senses  in  which  the  word 
oracle  is  used ;  (6)  the  different  views  as  to  the  method  of  employing 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  ;  (7)  the  meaning  of  the  ephod  and  its  use; 
(8)  the  place  of  the  lot  in  connection  with  religious  acts. 

Consider  whether,  with  the  growth  of  religious  conceptions  and 
the  higher  ideas  entertained  of  God  in  later  times,  the  use  of  these 
external  helps  increases  or  diminishes. 

Consider  the  use  of  these  or  similar  external  helps  in  consulting 
the  deity,  as  they  may  be  referred  to  in  (i)  the  Psalms,43  (2)  the 
wisdom  literature,44  (3)  the  apocryphal  literature,45  (4)  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;46  and  likewise  as  they  were  employed  among  (5)  the  Egyptians,47 
(6)  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,48  (7)  the  ancient  Arabs,49  (8)  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.50 

§  157.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

KALISCH,  Exodus  (1855),  pp.  540-45;  E.  H.  PLUMPTRE,  article  "Urim  and 
Thummim,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  W.  L. 
BEVAN,  article  "Ephod,"  ibid,  (ist  ed.  1863),  revised  by  J.  M.  FULLER  (2d  ed.  1893); 
KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874),  pp.  96-100  ;  W.  M.  RAMSAY, 

«3See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  16:  5  ;  22  :  18  ;  36  : 1;  no:  I;  125  13. 

"See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  I  :  14;  16:33;  18  : 18  ;  30  :  I;  31  : 1. 

«  Cf.  Wisdom  of  Solomon  8  : 8. 

*6See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  27:35;  Mark  15:24;  Luke  1:9;  23:34;  John  19:24;  Acts 
1 :26;  7  :38;  8  :  21;  Rom.  3:2;  Heb.  5  :  12  ;  I  Pet.  4:11. 

4?  See,  e.  g.,  WIEDEMANN,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Oracle,  etc." 

48  See  references  to  Pinches,  Strong,  and  Jastrow  cited  in  §  157. 

49  See  references  to  W.  R.  Smith  and  Wellhausen  cited  in  §157. 

s°  See,  e.  g.,  WARRE  CORNISH,  Concise  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 
s.  v.  "  Sortes." 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  145 

article  "Oracle,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1875);  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena,  p. 
130 ;  T.  G.  PINCHES,  "  The  Oracle  of  Ishtar  of  Arbela,"  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol. 
XI  (1878),  pp.  59-72;  see  also  ibid.,  Vol.  V,  new  series  (1891),  pp.  129-40;  S.  F. 
HANCOCK,  "The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  Old  Testament  Student,  Vol.  Ill  (1884),  pp. 
252-56;  KONIG,  Religious  History  of  Israel  (1885),  pp.  107  ff.;  W.  R  SMITH,  Rel.  of 
Sem.,  s&t  Index,  s.  v.  "Oracles,  etc.;"  KIRKPATRICK,  The  First  Book  of  Samuel  (Camb. 
Bible,  1891),  pp.  217  f.;  H.  E.  DOSKER,  "The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Review,  1892,  pp.  717-30;  S.  A.  STRONG,  "On  Some  Oracles  to  Esar- 
haddon  and  Assurbanipal,"  Beitrdge  zur  Assyriologie,  Band  II  (1894),  PP- 627-45  ; 
J.  F.  McCuRDY,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  j.  v.  "Oracles;"  G.  F.  MOORE,  Judges  (Inter- 
national Critical  Commentary,  1895),  P-  3^1;  HOMMEL,  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
(1897),  pp.  28off.;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  article  "Ephod,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  I 
(1898);  JASTROW,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Oracles;"  T.  C.  FOOTE,  "The  Biblical 
Ephod,"  Johns  Hopkins  University  Circulars,  XIX,  No.  145  (1900),  p.  40;  O.  C. 
WHITEHOUSE,  article  "Lots,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  W.  Muss- 
ARNOLT,  "  The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and 
Literatures,  Vol.  XVI  (1900),  pp.  193-224;  C.  H.  PRICHARD,  article  "Oracle," 
HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900) ;  G.  F.  MOORE,  article  "  Ephod,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica,Vo\.  11(1901). 

BRAUN,  De  vestitu  sacerdotum  (1698),  pp.  462  ff.;  BELLERMANN,  Die  Urim  und 
Thummim  (1824);  BAHR,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Cultus,  Vol.  II  (1839),  pp.  131-41; 
G.  KLAIBER,  Das  priesterliche  Orakel  der  Israeliten  (1865);  KOHLER,  Lehrbuch  der 
biblischen  Geschichte  des  Alien  Testamentes,  Vol.  I  (1875),  pp.  349  f.;  STEINER,  article 
"Urim  und  Thummim,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  RIEHM,  Hand- 
worterbuch  (ist  ed.  1884,  2d  ed.  by  Baethgen  1893  f.),  articles  "Ephod"  and  "Licht 
und  Recht;"  KAUTZSCH,  article  "Urim,"  Realencyklopddie  (2d  ed.  1885);  STADE, 
Geschichte,  Vol.  I  (1887),  pp.  466,  471 ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  arab.  Heidenthums,  pp. 
126  f.,  133, 167,  etc.;  BAUDISSIN,  Geschichte  des  alttestamentlichen  Priesterthums  (1889), 
pp.  70  f.,  205  ff.;  LAGARDE,  Mittheilungen,  Vol.  IV  (1891),  p.  17;  SELLIN,  Beitrdge 
zur  israelitischen  und  jiidischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Heft  II  (1897),  p.  119;  WIL- 
HELM  LOTZ,  article  "Ephod,"  Realencyklopddie,  Vol.  V  (3d  ed.,  1898);  VAN  Hoo- 
NACKER,  Le  sacerdoce  levitique  (1899),  pp.  370  ff. 

§  158.  Supplementary  Study  on  Consultation  with  the  Deity  or  Super- 
natural Powers  through  Magic,  Divination,  Sorcery,  Witchcraft. 

1.  The  early  period.51 

(a)  Magic  and  divination. —  Gen.  44:5,    150);    Exod.  22:17;    Numb. 
22  :  7  (J);  23  :  23;  i  Sam.  6:2;  28  :  8  ;  Mic.  3  :  6  f .,  1 1  ;  Isa.  2  :  6. 

(b)  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. — Exod.  22  : 18  ;   i  Sam.  15:23;  2  Kings  9  :  22. 

2.  The  middle  period.58 

(a)  Magic  and  divination. —  Deut.  18:9-14;  Jer.  8:17;  14:14;  27:9; 
29:8;  Ezek.  12:24;  13:7-9,  23;  2i:2ifL,  29;  22:28;  2  Kings 
17:17;  Isa.  44:25;  Mic.  5:12. 

S1  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

s2  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 


146  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(£)  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. —  Deut.  18:10;  Mic.  5:12;  Nah.  3 :  4 ;  Jer. 
27:9;  Isa.  47:9,  12;  57:3. 

3.   The  late  period.53 

(a)  Magic  and  divination. — Josh.  13:22;  Lev.  19  : 26,  31 ;  20  : 6,  27;  Zech. 
10:2. 

(b)  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. —  Exod.   7:11;    Mai.  3:5;    2  Chron.  33  :6  ; 
Dan.  2 : 2. 

§159.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Examine  the  various  means  of  consultation  with  higher  powers 
which  seem  always  to  have  been  regarded  as  improper  and  illegitimate, 
viz.,  magic,  divination,  sorcery,  and  witchcraft,  noting  (i)  the  various 
circumstances  under  which  such  consultation  is  held ;  (2)  the  under- 
lying motive  in  each  case;  (3)  the  relative  frequency  in  different 
periods ;  (4)  the  various  methods  thus  employed ;  (5)  the  external 
sources  of  these  influences ;  (6)  any  internal  source  from  which  they 
may  have  sprung;  (7)  the  prophetic  attitude  in  the  different  periods; 
(8)  the  explanation  of  this  attitude;  (9)  the  relation  of  all  this  to 
idolatry;  (10)  the  essential  element  of  injury  which  it  contributed; 
(i  i)  the  gradual  disappearance,  and  the  occasion  of  this  disappearance. 

Consider  (i)  the  significance  of  references  in  the  Psalms;5-*  (2) 
in  the  wisdom  literature ; ss  (3)  in  the  apocryphal  literature  ;5<s  (4)  in 
the  New  Testament.57 

Consider  the  use  of  these  methods  among  (i)  the  Egyptians;58  (2) 
the  ancient  Arabs;59  (3)  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians;*0  (4)  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.61 

§  1 60.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

F.  W.  FARRAR,  article  "Divination,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed. 
1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  SCHULTZ,  op.  fit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  250  ff.,  281  ff.,  283  ff.;  E.  B.TYLOR, 
article  "Divination,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  VII  (1878);  IDEM,  article 

53  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 
s*  See,  e.  g.,  Ps.  58  : 5.  &  See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  16  :  10. 

s*  See,  e.  g.,  Ecclus.  34  : 2-7. 

57  See,  <?.£-.,  Acts  8  :  9,  1 1 ;  13:6,8;  16:16;  Gal.  5  :  20  ;  Rev.  9:21;  18:23; 
21  :  8  ;  22  :  15. 

s8  See,  e.  g.,  BUDGE,  Egyptian  Magic. 

59  See,  e.  g.,  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  ofSem.,  Index,  s.  v.  "  Omens,"  etc.;  WELLHAUSEN, 
Reste  arab.  Heid.,  pp.  135-64. 

60  See,  e.  g.,  LENORMANT,  Chaldaan  Magic;  L.  W.  KING,  Babylonian  Magic  and 
Sorcery. 

61  See,  e.  g.,  E.  B.  TYLOR,  article  "  Magic,"  Encyc.  Brit. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  147 

"  Magic,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XV  (1883);  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  ofSem.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Charms," 
"Omens,"  "  Magic,"  "  Witches;  "  SCHURER,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  (he  Time 
of  Jesus  Christ,  Div.  II,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  151-5;  ERMAN,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl. 
1894),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Magic  Art,"  etc.;  MENZIES,  op,  fit.,  pp.  72, 91,  153  ;  McCuRDY, 
op.  cit.  (1895-1901),  §§  644,  851  n.,  858;  L.  W.  KING,  Babylonian  Magic  and  Sorcery, 
Being  "  The  Prayers  of  the  Lifting  of  the  Hand"  (1896);  T.  W.  DAVIES,  Magic, 
Divination  and  Demonology  (1898);  JASTROW,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Magical 
Texts,"  "  Sorcer,  etc.,"  "Witchcraft;"  F.B.jEVONS,  article  "Divination,"  HASTINGS' 
Dictionary,  Vol.  I  (1898);  O.  C.  WHITEHOUSE,  article  "Exorcism,"  ibid.;  T.  W. 
DAVIES,  article  "  Divination,"  Encyc.  Bib.,  Vol.  I  (1899);  E.  A.  W.  BUDGE,  Egyptian 
Magic  (1899);  RAMSAY,  The  Expositor,  July,  1899,  p.  22;  O.  C.  WHITEHOUSE,  arti- 
cle "Magic,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  DUFF,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  see 
Index,  s.  v.  "Divination;"  CHEYNE,  article  "Exorcists,"  Encyc.  Bib.,Vo\.  II  (1901); 
DAY,  op.  cit.,  pp.  185  f.,  220,  222  ;  ANDREW  LANG,  Magic  and  Religion  (1901). 

BRECHER,  Das  Transcendentale,  Magie,  und  magische  Heilarten  im  Talmud 
(1850);  P.  SCHOLZ,  Gotzendienst  und  Zauberwesen  bei  den  alien  Hebrdern  und  den 
benachbarten  Vblkern  (1877);  MAYBAUM,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Pro- 
phetenthums  (1883),  pp.  7-29;  STADE,  Geschichte,  Vol.  I,  pp.  503  ff.;  WELLHAUSEN, 
Reste  arabischen  Heidenthums  ("  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,"  III),  pp.  126,  135-64, 
215;  SMEND,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Wahrsagung,"  "Zauberei;"  TALLQVIST, 
Assyrifche  Beschwbrungsserie  Maqlu  (1894);  DILLMANN,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Wahrsager;"  ZIMMERN,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  der  babylonischen  Religion  (1896, 
1899);  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  p.  45  ;  FREY,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und  Seelenkult  (1898),  pp.  180, 
202  ;  LEHMANN,  Aberglaube*  und  Zauberei:  BLAU,  Das  aU-jiidische  Zauberwesen. 

§  1 6 1 .  Supplementary  Study  on  Mourning  Customs. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Amos  5:16;  8:10;  Mic.  i  :  8,  16  ;  Isa.  3  :  24  ;  15:2;  22:12; 
2  Sam.  3:31;  21:10;  i  Kings  21:27;  2  Kings  19:  if.;  Gen. 
37:34(E),  35(J);  cf.  I  Kings  20  :  31  f. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut.  14:1!;  Jer.  16:6-8;  41:5;  47:5;  49:3;  48:37;  4:8; 
6 :  26  ;  Ezek.  24 :  16-17;  29  :  18  ;  27  : 31  ;  7  : 18. 

3.  The  late  period. 

Lev.ig:27f.;  21  : 5  ;  Joel  i  :8  ;  Jon.  3:  5  ff.;   Ezra  9:3;  Dan.  9:3. 

§  162.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Study  the  references  given  to  mourning  customs,  and  note  (i)  the 
custom  of  weeping  and  its  significance,  in  contrast  with  the  modern 
conception  ;  (2)  the  more  intense  expression  of  grief,  termed  wailing; 
(3)  the  beating  of  the  breast,  tearing  of  the  hair,  rending  of  clothes, 
putting  on  sackcloth,  and  mutilation  of  the  body,  as  expressions  of 
mourning ;  (4)  the  putting  away  of  food  to  (or  for)  the  dead  (Deut. 
26 : 14);  (5)  fasting  (cf.  i  Sam.  31  :  13). 

Consider,  in  connection  with  these  customs,  (i)  to  what  extent  they 


148  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

are  survivals  from  the  age  in  which  ancestor-worship  prevailed ;  (2)  to 
what  extent,  therefore,  they  had  their  origin  in  the  effort  to  propitiate 
the  spirit  of  the  dead,  which  was  supposed  to  have  power  for  good  or 
evil,  rather  than  in  the  desire  to  express  grief  for  the  loss  that  had  been 
incurred;  (3)  the  reasons  for  forbidding  certain  of  these  customs  (cf. 
Deut.  14:1;  26:14;  Lev.  19:28);  (4)  changes  which  seem  to  have 
come  about  in  the  progress  of  history. 

Consider  the  representations  made  concerning  mourning  customs 
in  the  Psalms,68  (2)  in  the  wisdom  literature,63  (3)  in  the  apocryphal 
literature,64  (4)  in  the  New  Testament,'5  (5)  among  other  ancient 
nations.66 

§  163.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

THOMSON,  The  Land  and  the  Book  (1859),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Manners  and 
Customs;"  H.  W.  PHILLOTT,  article  "Mourning,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
(ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  MASPERO,  Egyptian  Archeology  (transl.  1887),  pp.  108- 
63;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  of  Sent.,  pp.  322  f.,  336,  370,  430;  A.  P.  BENDER,  "Beliefs, 
Rites,  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,  Connected  with  Death,  Burial,  and  Resurrection," 
Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  VI  (1893-94),  PP-  3!7~47.  664-71  ;  Vol.  VII  (1894-95), 
101-18,  259-69;  ERMAN,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl.  1894),  PP-  306-27;  E.  A. 
WALLIS  BUDGE,  The  Mummy  (2d.  ed.  1894);  H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  Studies  in  Oriental 
Social  Life  (1894),  pp.  143-208;  MENZIES,  op.  cit.  (1855),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Funeral 
Practices;"  JASTROW,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Dead/'  etc.;  PERITZ,  "Woman  in 
the  Ancient  Hebrew  Cult,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XVII  (1898),  pp 
137  f.;  T.  NICOL,  article  "  Mourning,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900) ;  DUFF 
op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  see  Index, s.  v.  "  Mourning  and  Bewailing  ;"  DAY,  op.  cit.,  pp.  204  ff.; 
WlEDEMANN,  The  Realm  of  the  Egyptian  Dead. 

PERLES,  "  Die  Leichenfeierlichkeiten  des  nachbiblischen  Judenthums,"  Monats- 
schrift  fur  Geschichte  und  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthum s,  Vol.  X  (1861),  pp.  345-55, 
376-94  ;  M.  GEIER,  De  Ebraeorum  luctu  lugentiuntque  ritibus  (3d  ed.  1868) ;  Ros- 
KOFF,  article  "Klage,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel-Lexikon,Vo\.  Ill  (1871);  OORT,  "De 
doodenvereering  bij  de  Israeliten,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Vo\.  XV  (1881),  pp.  350ff.; 
KAMPHAUSEN,  article  "Trauer,"  RIEHM'S  Handworterbuch,Vo\.  II  (1884)  ;  LEHRER, 
article  "Trauer  bei  den  Hebraern,"  Realencyklopddie,  Vol.  XV  (2d  ed.  1885) ;  STADE, 
Geschichte,  Vol.  I,  pp.  387 ff.;  G.  A.  WILKEN,  Ueber  das  Haaropfer  (1886  f.);  WELL- 
HAUSEN,  Reste  arab.  Heidenthums  (1887),  pp.  159  ff.,  178  f.;  GOLDZIHER,  Muhamme- 
danischeStudien(l&%8),Vo\.  I, pp.  229-63;  SCHWALLY,Z?<W  Leben  nach  dent  Tode(lSgz); 
SMEND,  op.  cit.,  pp.  153  f.;  WELLHAUSEN,  Israelitische  und  jiidische  Geschichte  (ist  ed. 

62  See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  35  :  14  ;  38  :  6 ;  42  : 9 ;  43  : 2  ;  88  :  9. 

*3  See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  29  :  2  ;  Job  2  : 1 1 ;  5  :  1 1  ;  30  :  28  ;  Eccles.  3 : 4. 

**  See,  e.  g.,  Ecclus.  7  :  34  ;  22:  ill.;  38 : 16  ff.;  41  :  I  ff. 

6s  See,  e  g.,  Matt.  2  :  18  ;  5:4;  9:15;  1 1  : 17  ;  24  : 30 ;  Mark  16  : 10  ;  Luke  6  125  ; 
7:32;  I  Cor.  5:2;  2  Cor.  7  :7;  Jas.  4:9;  Rev.  18:8,  n. 

66  See  especially  the  references  to  the  works  of  W.  R.  Smith,  Wellhausen, 
Menzies,  Jastrow,  and  Trumbull  cited  in  §  163. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  149 

1894),  p.  143;  NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  187-98;  BENZINGER,  op,  tit.,  pp.  102, 
165  ff.,  428  ;  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  37,  40  ff.,  1 16  ;  FREY,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und  Seelen- 
kult  im  alten  Jsrae/(i8()8) ;  BERTHOLET,  Die  israelitischen  Vorstellungtn  vom  Zustand 
nach  dem  Tode  (1899);  KREHL,  Religion  der  Araber;  F.  J.  GRUNDT,  Die  Trauerge- 
brduche  der  Hebraer. 

§  164.  Supplementary  Study  on  Circumcision. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  4  : 24  ff.  (J);   Josh.  5  :  2  f.,  9  (J);   Judg.   14:3;   15:18;    i  Sam. 
14:6;  17:26,  36;    i8:25ff.;   31:4;   2  Sam.  1:20;   3:14. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut.  10:16;  30:6;  Hab.  2:16;  Jer.  4:6;  6:10;  9:24  f.;  Josh.  5  14-8; 
Ezek.  28  :  10;  31:18;  32:19,  21,  24-32;  44  :  7,  9;  Isa.  52:  i. 

3.  The  late  period.67 

Lev.  12  :a;  19  :  23  ff.;  26  =41 ;  Gen.  17  : 10-14,  23-27  ;  21:4;  34:14  f., 
17,  22,  24;  Exod.  6  : 12,  30;  12  :  44,  48  ;   i  Chron.  10:4. 

§  165.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Study  the  references  to  circumcision,  considering  (i)  the  more 
interesting  narratives  concerning  instances  of  circumcision,  e.  g.,  (a) 
Moses'  son  and  Zipporah,  (6)  the  circumcision  at  Gilgal,  (f)  the  cir- 
cumcision of  Abraham's  family,  of  Shechem  and  his  family;  (2)  the 
characterization  of  other  nations  as  uncircumcised ;  (3)  the  early 
origin,  how  shown. 

Consider  (i)  the  explanation  of  the  origin  which  makes  it  sanitary, 
i.  e.,  instituted  as  a  preventive  of  certain  diseases ;  (2)  the  explanation 
which  connects  it  with  marriage,  as  thereby  promoting  fruitfulness ; 
(3)  the  explanation  that  makes  it  a  tribal  badge,  /.  e.,  a  mark  of  initia- 
tion into  full  membership  in  the  tribe  (which  included  religious 
privileges),  and  therefore  an  act  of  sacramental  communion,  an  act  of 
sacrifice,  a  dedication. 

Consider  (i)  the  place  of  circumcision  in  the  early  period,  viz.,  of 
young  men  {e.g.,  Gen.,  chap.  34;  Josh.  5:2f.;  Exod.  4: 25), and  as  a  tribal 
distinction  (cf.  Gen.,  chap.  34;  Ezek.  31:  8);  (2)  its  place  in  the  middle 
period :  (a)  not  mentioned  in  history  or  in  the  older  laws,  not  regarded 
as  important ;  (b)  circumcision  of  heart  called  for  (Jer.  9  :  24,  25),  while 
the  circumcision  of  Israelites  is  placed  on  the  same  plane  with  that  of 
Edomites,  Ammonites,  and  other  nations;  (c}  the  spiritualization  by  the 
prophets  furnishing  the  basis  for  more  extended  use  in  the  next  period ; 

^  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 


150  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(3)  its  place  in  the 'later  period  :  (a)  the  representations  of  its  origin; 
(£)  the  regulations  for  the  performance  of  the  rite;  (t)  its  position  as 
one  of  the  two  distinctive  ordinances  of  Judaism,  the  other  being  the 
sabbath ;  (*/)  its  significance  as  a  rite  of  purification. 

Consider  representations  concerning  circumcision  (i)  in  the  apoc- 
ryphal literature  j68  (2)  in  the  New  Testament,69  and  the  lack  of  allusion 
to  it  in  the  Psalms  and  in  the  wisdom  literature.  (3)  Consider  the  prac- 
tice of  circumcision  among  the  Egyptians,  Arabs,  and  other  nations.70 

§  1 66.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

T.  T.  PEROWNE,  article  "Circumcision,"  SMITH'S  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863, 
2d  ed.  1893);  EWALD,  op.  cit.,  pp.  89-97;  SCHULTZ,  op.  cit,,  Vol.  I,  pp.  192  ff.;  II,  pp. 
7-70;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874),  Vol.  I,  pp.  238,  290; 
ASHER,  The  Jewish  Rite  of  Circumcision  (1873);  E.  B.  TYLOR,  Primitive  Culture, 
Vol.  II  (1874),  pp.  363  ff.;  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  article  "Circumcision,"  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  Vol.  V  (1877);  E.  B.  TYLOR,  Early  History  of  Mankind  (3d  ed.  1878), 
pp.  214-19;  KALISCH,  Bible  Studies,  Part  11(1878),  pp.  4-11;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prole- 
gomena, p.  340;  RENAN,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1887,  transl.  1894), 
pp.  104-9 ;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Rel.  of  Sem.,  p.  328;  BANCROFT,  Native  Races  (1890),  Vol. 
Ill,  see  Index;  P.  C.  REMONDINO,  History  of  Circumcision  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Present  (1891);  H.  C.  TRUMBULL,  The  Blood  Covenant  (1893),  pp.  79,215-24, 
351  f.;  ERMAN,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl.  1894),  pp.  32  f.,  539;  SCHECHTER, 
Studies  in  Judaism  (1896),'  p.  343;  A.  H.  SAYCE,  Expository  Times,  November,  1897; 
I.  J.  PERITZ,  "Woman  in  the  Ancient  Hebrew  Cult,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature, 
Vol.  XVII  (1898),  p.  136;  MACALISTER,  article  "Circumcision,"  HASTINGS'  Dictionary, 
Vol.  I  (1898);  BENZINGER,  article  "Circumcision,"  Encyc.Bib.,  Vol.  I  (1899). 

BORHECK,  1st  die  Beschneidung  ursprilnglich  hebrdisch  ?  (1793);  COHEN,  Dis- 
sertation sur  la  circoncision  (1816);  AUTENRIETH,  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  Beschnei- 
dung (1829);  LUBKERT,  "Der  jiidische  &r«T7ra07x<5s,"  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1835,  pp.  657-64;  COLLIN,  Die  Beschneidung  (1842);  S.  HOLDHEIM, 
Ueber  die  Beschneidung  in  religids.  Beziehungen;  BERGSON,  Die  Beschneidung 
(1844);  SALOMON,  Die  Beschneidung  histor.  und  medizin.dargeslellt  (1844);  BRECHER, 
Die  Beschneidung  (1845);  STEINSCHNEIDER,  Ueber  die  Beschneidung  der  Araber 
(1845);  G.  EBERS,  Aegypten  und  die  Bucher  Moses,  VoL  I  (1868),  pp.  278-84  ;  STEINER, 
article  "Beschneidung,"  SCHENKEL'S  Bibel '- Lexikon,  Vol.  I  (1869);  AUERBACH, 
Berith  Abraham,  oder,  der  Beschneidungsfeier  (2d  ed.  1 880);  WEBER,  Die  Lehren 
des  Talmud  (1880),  p.  373;  PLOSS,  Das  Kind  in  Brauch  und  Sitte  der  Vdlker  (ad 
ed.  1882),  pp.  360  ff.;  RIEHM,  article  "Beschneidung,"  Handwbrterbuch  (1884); 
STADE,  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  VI  (1886),  pp.  132-43; 
WELLHAUSEN,  Restearab.  Heidenthums  (ist  ed.  1887),  pp.  154,  168,  215  ;  HOLZINGER, 

68 See,  e.  g.,  I  Mace.  1: 14,  48,  60  f.;  2  Mace.  6  : 10. 

69  See,  e.  g.,  Luke  1 :  59  ;  John  7:22!.;  Acts  15:5;  16:3;  21:21;  Rom.  2  :  25  ff.; 
I  Cor.  7  : 18  f.;  Gal.  5  :  2  f.;  6:13;  Col.  3:11;  Phil.  3  :  5. 

7°  See  especially  the  references  to  the  works  of  Tylor,  Bancroft,  W.  R.  Smith, 
Wellhausen,  Ploss,  Ebers,  Erman,  and  Reitzenstein,  cited  in  §  166. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER 

Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893),  PP-  J33>  3&5>  437;  SMEND,  op.  cit.,  pp.  37  f.,  116; 
NOWACK,  op.  cit.,  pp.  167-71 ;  BENZINGER,  op.  cit.,  pp.  153  ff.;  BUDDE,  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XIV  (1894),  p.  250;  GLASSBERG,  Die  Beschnei- 
dung  (1896);  KRAETZSCHMAR,  Die  Bundesvorstellung  im  Alien  Testament  (1896), 
pp.  165,  174;  BERTHOLET,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Frem- 
den  (1896),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Beschneidung ; "  MARTI,  op.  cit.,  pp.  43,  163  f.;  J. 
JAEGER,  "  Ueber  die  Beschneidung,"  Neue  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  July,  1898,  pp.  479-91; 
ZEYDNER,  "  Kainszeichen,  Keniter  und  Beschneidung,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttesta- 
mentliche Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XVIII  (1898),  pp.  1 20-25;  REITZENSTEIN,  Zwei  religions- 
geschichtliche  Fragen  (1901). 


PAET  FOUETH 


THE   LITERATURE   OF   WORSHIP -THE   LEG-AL 
LITERATURE 

XII.     THE  DEUTERONOMIC  CODE. 

XIII.  EZEKIEL'S  CONTRIBUTION. 

XIV.  THE  PRIESTLY  CODE. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE    LEGAL    LITERATURE THE    DEUTERONOMIC    CODE    OF    LAWS. 

§  167.  The  Literature  of  Worship  includes  that  portion  of  the  Old 
Testament  literature  which  concerns  itself  with  the  subject  of  worship 
in  any  of  its  forms,  or  was  written  by  men  imbued  with  the  priestly 
spirit.  Here  belong  : 

1.  The    legal    literature  (cf.  §9),  or  codes    of    laws   and   regula- 
tions dealing   with  the  various    elements    in  worship ;     these   codes 
include   more   than   can    properly  be   classified    under   the    head   of 
worship,  but  everything    in  them  may  be  said    to  be   priestly  in  its 
character. 

2.  The   historical    literature  (§10),  viz.,  Chronicles,   Ezra,   Nehe- 
miah,  and  the  priestly  history  in  the  Hexateuch  (=P). 

3.  The  hymnal  literature  (§  8),  as  found  in  the  book  of  Psalms. 

A  marked  spirit  of  unity  characterizes  all  this  literature,  and  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  prophetic  and  the  wisdom  literature  (§  2). 

§168.  The  Legal  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  found  in  four  groups  or  codes  of  legislation,  viz.: 

1.  The  covenant  code   (§20),  the  earliest  form  of  Exod.  20:23— 
legislation,  ordinarily  called  the  prophetic  code,  because      23-I9>34- 
it  is  incorporated  in  literature  of   a   prophetic  charac- 
ter. • 

2.  The    Deuteronomic   code  (§§    25-28),  so  called  Deut.  12:1—26:19; 
because   it   forms   the   principal    part   of   the   book    of 
Deuteronomy. 

3.  Ezekiel's    system    of    worship    (§  31),   which    is,  Ezek.,  chaps, 
strictly  speaking,   priestly  and    legalistic,  although  the 

work  of  a  prophet. 

4.  The  Levitical  code  (§§  41-44),  so  called  because 
it  is  found  in  the  book  of  Leviticus  (with  portions  of 
Exodus  and  Numbers). 

§  169.  The  Covenant  Code  (§  20),  or  prophetic  code, 
is  the  codification  of  law  and  usage  in  Israel  down  to 
about  650  B.  C.  Concerning  this  code  there  may  be 
noted: 


156  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

judg.  17:7  ff-  i.  Its  prevalence  is  synchronous  with  the  period  in 

which  the  order  of  priests  does  not  occupy  the  place  of 
power  in  Israelitish  thought.  When  the  priests  take  a 
more  influential  place  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  an- 
other code  appears  (the  Deuteronomic),  in  which  this 
higher  position  is  recognized. 

2.  Its  form,  contents,  a-nd  character  are  rather  pro- 
Exod.  30:34  «.      phetic  than  priestly,  since,  although  (i)  the  act  of  wor- 
Exod.  33:14-17.      ship    is  recognized  (§  73,  i),  (2)  provision   is  made  for 
Exod.  23:18.         feasts  and  offerings  (§  96),  (3)  reference  is  made  to  magic 

and  sacrifice  to  other  gods  (§158,  i),  all  this  is  of  the 
simplest  character,  and  no  tendency  exists  toward  the 
development  of  a  priestly  system,  there  being  no  men- 
tion even  of  a  priest  or  a  priestly  order  (§  59,  i). 

3.  It  furnishes  a  formulation  under  prophetic  influ- 
ence of  the  old  Semitic  usage,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  basis  on  which  the  later  codes  are  developed. 

4.  Its  relation  to  these  later  codes  has  been  shown  in 
the  comparative  examination  of  various  usages  (§§59- 
166). 

a  Kings  33:3-  §J7°-  The   Story   of   the   Discovery  of  Deuteronomy 

a3:a5'  (§25)-' 

3  Kings  3i:i-a6.  i.  Consider  the  conditions  of  the  times  in  which  this 
event  occurred,  viz.,  the  preceding  reigns  of  Manasseh 
and  Amon,  their  character,  the  forms  of  worship 
encouraged,  the  prophetic  attitude  (2  Kings  21  :  10- 
15),  the  particular  royal  acts  regarded  with  disfavor 
(§*4). 

See  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  370-79 ; 
BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp.  161-9 ;  KENT,  A  History 
of  the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  II,  pp.  159-64;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolego- 
mena to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  485  ff. 

1  It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  interpreters  that  the  original  story  of  the  dis- 
covery of  Deuteronomy  has  been  edited  from  the  point  of  view  of  later  times.  The 
account,  as  it  now  stands,  conies  from  three  sources:  (i)  the  early  narrative,  (2)  the 
pre-exilic  redaction,  (3)  the  post-exilic  redaction.  The  parts  that  show  the  clearest 
evidence  of  the  work  of  the  post-exilic  editor  are  2  Kings  22  : 14-20 ;  23  : 8  ff.,  16-18, 
21-23,  25^-27 ;  the  work  of  the  earlier  editor  appears  in  23  :  3,  13,  24  f.;  while  22  :  $b, 
6,  8  ("the  high-priest") ;  23  : 6,b,  5,  yb,  14, 16-20,  seem  to  be  minor  glosses.  The  pur- 
pose of  these  additions  and  modifications  was  to  furnish  an  explanation,  from  the  later 
point  of  view,  of  the  disaster  that  fell  upon  Judah  so  soon  after  this  reform. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE  -  DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  157 

2.  Study  the  principal  details  of  the  discovery,  e,  g., 
(i)  the  chief  agent,  the  priest;  (2)  the  phrase  "the  book  a  JJPg.J14'  8> 
of  the  law;"  (3)  the  strange  effect  of  the  reading  upon  a  Kings  aa.-s. 


the  king;  (4)  the  consultation  with  Huldah—  her  oracle,  a  ^ngs  M:"- 

'    a  Kings  aa  :  14-30. 

its  original  form  and  meaning;  (5)  the  convocation  of  a  Kings  33:  if. 

the  nation  and  the  public  reading;    (6)  the  covenant 

entered  into;  (7)  the  phrase  "his  commandments,  and 

his  testimonies,  and  his  statutes;"  (8)  the  phrase  "with  a  Kings  33:3. 

all  his  heart  and  all    his  soul;"  (9)  one  by  one,   the  a  Kings  33  :  4-20. 

various  acts  of  reformation  instituted  by  Josiah  ;   (10)  a  Kings  33  :  31-33. 

the  observance  of   the   passover;    (n)   the    purpose  of  3  Kings  33  =  8; 

33:3,31,34. 

these  acts,  viz.,  to  confirm  "the  words  of  this  covenant 
which  were  written  in  this  book,"  etc. 

3.  Consider  (§  26)  the  immediate  results  of  the  find-  3  K"1*8  23:4-«4. 
ing  of  this  book,  and  compare  these  results  with  the 
actual  provisions  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
determine  :  (i)  whether  Deuteronomy  commands  any 
essential  thing  which  Josiah  did  not  try  to  do;  (2) 
whether  Josiah  undertook  any  act  of  reformation  for 
which  Deuteronomy  does  not  make  provision. 

.  4.  Take  up  now  three  important  questions:  (i)  Is  there 
any  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  book 
found  by  Hilkiah  with  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  or, 
at  least,  a  portion  of  it?  (2)  Does  the  story  in  Kings  of  a  Kings  33:  8-13. 
the  finding  of  the  book  definitely  indicate  a  belief,  on 
the  part  of  its  writer,  that  the  book  discovered  was  one 
written  by  Moses,  or  of  Mosaic  origin  ?  (3)  If  such 
Mosaic  origin  is  implied  in  the  narrative,  what  explana- 
tion of  the  narrative  is  possible  from  the  point  of  view 
of  those  who  deny  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  book  ? 

5.  Take  up,  still  further,  these  questions  :  (i)  Do  the 
facts  of  the  reformation  furnish  evidence  that  the  book  a  Kings  33:  4-04. 
which  authorizes  them  is  of  ancient  date,  that  is,  Mosaic  ? 
(2)  Could  these  facts  be  accounted  for  just  as  easily  and 
naturally  on  the  other  supposition,  that  is,  that  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy  was  prepared  during  Manasseh's  reign, 
lost,  and  found  in  Josiah's  reign  ?  (3)  In  this  latter  case, 
what  motive,  worthy  of  the  situation,  could  be  ascribed 
to  those  who  took  part  in  the  transaction  ?  Would  it  be 
sufficient  to  say  that  it  was  done  to  recommend  certain 


158  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

reforms  and  to  establish  more  firmly  the  national  reli- 
gion ? 

§171.  Representations  in  Deuteronomy  Concerning  its 
Authorship. 

1:1-5-,'  4:if-,44          i.  Read  and  interpret  the  passages  in  Deuteronomy 
9,"n;  '29. if.;   which  make  reference  to  its  authorship,  noting  the  par- 

?i  •  i  f      9  f  •  i    24 
.,30;  32:44ff-;   ticular  portions  of  the  book  which  contain  these  refer- 

33 '.  X  I. 

ences,  and  noting,  further,  that  the  strictly  legal  portion, 
12  :  i — 26 : 19,  contains  nothing  of  this  kind. 

2.  Consider  whether   it    was   customary  in    ancient 
times  to  ascribe  to  great  men  writings  whose  authorship 
was  unknown,  and  whether  instances  of  this  custom  are 

Prov.  xo:i;  25:1.  found  (in  sacred  writings)  in  the  case  of  (i)  Solomon,3 
to  whom  are  ascribed  proverbs  and  psalms  and  books 

PSS.  103;  122;  124;  which  are  of  a  manifestly  later  age ;  (2)  David,4  to  whom 
psalms  are  ascribed  which  certainly  date  from  a  post- 

isa., chaps. 40-66.  exilic  time;  (3)  Isaiah,5  to  whom  prophetic  discourses 
are  ascribed  which  are  now  almost  universally  recognized 
as  belonging  to  the  exilic  and  post-exilic  periods ;  and 
(in  secular  writings)  (4)  the  letters  and  many  of  the  dia- 
logues assigned  to  Plato;6  (5)  the  "Shield  of  Hercules" 
and  many  other  works  ascribed  to  Hesiod.7 

3.  Consider  also  the  ancient  custom  in  accordance 
with  which  writers,  for   certain  reasons,  ascribed   their 

Eccies.  in,  12.      own  writings  to  great  men,  as  in  the  case  of  (i)  the 

Song  of  Solomon  writer  of  Ecclesiastes;8  (2)  the  writer  of  the  Song  of 

Solomon ;»  (3)  the  authors  of  the  "  Wisdom  of  Solomon  " 

D "i 2?  rtc.9'' a;     and  of  the  "  Psalms  of  Solomon  ; " I0  (4)  the  author  of  the 

"All  Scripture  references  in  this  chapter  which  are  cited  without  the  name  of  the 
book  are  from  Deuteronomy. 

'  See,  e.  g.,  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.), 
pp.  406  ff. 

«  See,  e.  g.,  DRIVER,  op.  cit.,  pp.  373  ff. 

s  See,  e.  g.,  CHEYNE,  Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Isaiah. 

6  See  JEVONS,  History  of  Greek  Literature,  pp.  482  f . 

7  See  JEVONS,  op.  cit.,  p.  86. 

8  See  articles  on  "  Ecclesiastes "  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  in 
Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

'See  DRIVER,  op.  cit.,  pp.  437  ff. 

to  See  articles  on  "  Apocrypha  "  in  Encyclopccdia  Biblica  and  in  HASTINGS'S  Die- 
tionary  of  the  Bible.. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  159 

book  of  Daniel;"  (5)  Plato  putting  his  words  into  the 
mouth  of  Socrates;12  (6)  the  alleged  correspondence 
between  St.  Paul  and  Seneca,  consisting  of  fourteen 
letters.13 

4.  Consider  the  Egyptian  custom  of  placing  in  con-   Cf.  31:26. 
nection  with  religious  works  the  statement  "  found  in  the 
temple,"  this  being  understood  to  be,  not  a  statement 

that  a  book  had  been  lost  and  found,  but  a  conventional 
fiction  of  the  priestly  class  to  affirm  its  sacred  and 
authoritative  character.14 

5.  Consider,  however,  whether,   after  all,   it   is  not 
quite  certain  that  the  leaders  of  the  time,  as  well  as  the 
people,  supposed  the  "found"  book  to  have  been  (i) 
lost  for  many  years,  (2)  actually  discovered,  and  (3)  of 
Mosaic  origin. 

§  172.   The  Point  of  View  and  Coloring  of  the  Book. 

1.  Consider,  as  bearing  upon  the  Mosaic  origin,  (i) 

the  situation — border  of  the  wilderness — outside  the  i:if. 

Holy  Land  ;  (2)  the  lack  of  any  reference  to  Jerusalem 

or  the  temple;  (3)  the   frequent  representation  that  the  1:8:4:1;  6:iof.; 

land  is  not  yet  occupied;  (4)  the  constant  reference  to  7:1-5,  17-24; 

the  Canaanites  as  Israel's  enemies;  (5)  the  references  to  6:ai;  7-8,18; 

Egypt  as  a  recent  place  of  dwelling;  (6)  the  references  4:3,4. 

to  events  which  those  addressed  had  themselves  seen ; 

(7)  the  many  Egyptian  reminiscences,  e.  g.,  of  methods  «:«>;  25:3,3; 

of  irrigation,  bastinado, writing  of  law  on  plastered  stones,      u-.ii;  n:'io; 

wearing  of  law  as  amulet,  deliverance  from  Egypt,  Egyp-      28:27, 35;  s^s; 

&jr       &/r       15:15;  16.12. 

tian  diseases,  motives  of  kindness  to  servants. 

2.  Consider,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  all  these 
points  are  not  capable  of  other  explanation,     (i)  Is  it 
inconceivable  that  the  writer  planned  to  give  his  book  a 
Mosaic  setting — in  other  words,  that  all  this  material  is 
merely  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  dramatic  repre- 
sentation ?     Is  the  book  not  thoroughly  dramatic  in  its 

"See  DRIVER,  The  Book  of  Daniel  (Cambridge  Bible),  pp.  xlvii-lxxvi. 
"See  the    "Charmides,"   "Lysis,"    "Protagoras,"   etc.;  and  compare  JOWETT, 
Dialogues  of  Plato  (Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  5  vols.). 

13  See  LlGHTFOOT,  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  p.  260. 

14  See  CHEYNE,  Jeremiah,  His  Life  and  Times,  p.  85  ;  MASPERO,  Histoire  ancienne 
de  T Orient  (i&t  ed.),  pp.  57,  73;  BRUGSCH,  Geschichte  Aegyptens  (ist  ed.),  pp.  60,  84. 


l60  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

5:6-21;  cf.  Exod.  whole  presentation  ?'s     (2)    Is  it  not  to  be  expected 
i4:ai£/  cf.  Exod    that  the  writer,  if  a  late  one,  would  include  material  of 

23 : 19^. 

16:46;  cf.  Bxod.  the  earlier  times?     Is  there  anywhere  a  claim  that  he 

23:183. 
23:7, 8;  cf.  23:3.    includes  only  late  material?    (3)  Is  the  author  of  the 

book  really  as  hostile  to  the  Egyptians  as  a  writer  would 
be  expected  to  be,  if  he  lived  in  the  generation  follow- 
ing the  exodus  ?  If  so,  how  explain  the  permission  to 
admit  an  Egyptian  to  religious  privileges  in  the  third 
generation,  when  this  privilege  is  denied  other  nations 

17:14-17,  until  the  tenth  generation  ?     (4)  Is  not  the  writer  living 

in  a  time  when  the  upper  classes  have  an  attachment  to 
Egypt,  which  he  must  oppose,  for  how  otherwise  explain 

isa., chaps. 30, 31;   Deut.  17  : 14-17  ?    (5)  Is  it  not  true  that  there  was  con- 
i8:ai';</. 25:26.   stant  communication  with  Egypt  between  750  B.  C.  and 
600  B.  C.,  and  may  not  these  Egyptian  references  be 
explained  on  the  ground  of  this  intimacy  ? 

3.    Are  there  not  allusions  which  furnish  direct  evi- 
dence that  the  writer  is  living  at  a  distance  from  the 

2:34:3:4, 8, etc.;  period  of  which  he  treats  ;  e.  g.,  (i)  are  the  phrases  "at 
that  time,"  "  unto  this  day,"  appropriate  in  the  mouth 
of  Moses,  when  the  events  described  occurred  during 
the  preceding  six  months  (cf.  1:3  with  Numb.  33:38, 
thus  fixing  the  date  of  Numb.  20:22-28)?  (2)  How 

24:g;25:i7;23:5;  explain  2  : 12  as  Mosaic  ?  (3)  Could  Moses  have  used 
appropriately  the  phrase  "when  ye  came  forth  out  of 

1:1,5;  3=8;  etc.  Egypt"  ?  (4)  Must  the  writer  not  have  lived  in  western 
Palestine  in  view  of  his  use  of  the  phrase  beyond  the 
Jordan  of  eastern  Palestine  ? 

§  173.  The  Language  and  Style  of  the  Book, 
i.  Examine  a  list  of  special  words  and  phrases16  fre- 
quently occurring  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  con- 
sider (i)  the  bearing  of  the  fact  of  such  a  list  upon  the 
question  of  authorship  ;  does  it  argue  for  or  against 
identity  of  authorship  with  the  other  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch? (2)  the  general  character  of  these  expressions  as 
indicating  early  or  later  authorship. 

*s  Cf.  the  same  element  in  the  book  of  Job,  viz.,  a  dramatic  representation  of 
antiquity  in  connection  with  the  presentation  of  a  (comparatively)  modern  thought. 

16  See,  e.g.,  DRIVER,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy, 
pp.  Ixxvii-lxxxiv. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  l6l 

2.  Examine  a  list  of  the  linguistic  peculiarities  ap- 
pearing in  the  book,'7  /'.  <?.,  the  peculiar  forms,  idioms, 
etc.,  and  consider  whether  these  exhibit  evidence  (i)  of 
antiquity  of  date,  or  (2)  of  late  date.  With  what  writer  c/.jer.  7:1-26; 

II :  1-8 ;    16 :  i- 

in  the  Old  Testament  does  the  book  of  Deuteronomy      13:21:3-10. 
show  the  largest  number  of  similarities  ? 

*.  Consider  (i)  the  general  style  of  Deuteronomy,   c/.  a: 28  with 

v  J  J         Numb.  20:19; 

viz.,  classical,  pure,  broad,  copious,  idiomatic;  (2)  the      1:28 with 

Numb.  13 '.  28  ~, 
striking  points  of  style  which  distinguish  this  book  from      1:35,  36,39,41 

the  other  Pentateuchal  books,  and,  indeed,  from  other      14:23,24,31, 

4O0  • 

Old  Testament  books,  viz.,  (a)  individual,  affecting  even 
quotations ;  (d)  the  hortatory  element,  based  upon  (c)  the 
oratorical. 

§  174.  The  Material  of  the  Book. —  Make  an  examina- 
tion of  the  material  of  the  "book  with  a  view  to  finding 
evidence  for  and  against  the  Mosaic  authorship,  as 
follows : 

1.  Note  (i)  the  prohibition  of  intercourse  with  the  7:1. 

Canaanites:  (2)   references  to  Israel's  condition  in  the  4:3,4;  ?:*;  8:1; 
^  '  9:1. 

wilderness;  (3)   the  directions  for  appointing  a  king;   17:14. 
(4)  the  law  for  the  cities  of  refuge,  possible  only  at  the   19:1-10. 
time   of   the   entrance ;    (5)   the   order   to   recall   what  25:17-19. 
Amalek  did  to   them  ;    (6)  directions   for  the  blessing  37:11-16. 
and  cursing    on    Mount   Ebal ;    and   consider   whether 
material  of  this  kind  could  possibly  have  had  its  origin 
at  any  other  than  a  very  early  time,  viz.,  the  time  of 
Moses. 

2.  Consider,  on  the    other    hand,    (i)    whether   the 
presence  of  this  material  has  not  already  been  accounted 
for  in  the  statement  (see  §  172,  2)  that  the  book  is  con- 
ceded to  contain  much  very  old  material  which  has  been 
handed  down  and  incorporated  side  by  side  with  the 
newer  material ;    and  (2)  whether  the  presence  of  the 
newer  material  can  possibly  be  explained  in  a  book  of 
Mosaic  origin,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  prohibition  of  star-worship,  4:19517:3. 
which  is  late;  (6)  warnings  against  lower  forms  of  proph-   18:10-12. 
ecy,  which  cannot   have  antedated  Amos   and    Hosea ; 

17  See,  e,  g.,  DRIVER,  op.  cit.,  p.  Ixxxiv ;  HOLZiNGER,^5'z«/«V««g'  in  den  Hexateuch, 
pp.  282-91 ;  STEUERNAGEL,  Deuteronomium  ("  Handkommentar  zum  Alien  Testa- 
ment"), pp.  xxxii-xli. 


l62  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

12:1-7.  (f)  the  law  centralizing  worship  at  one  place;  (d)  laws 

Chaps.  15,21,23,  |jke  tnose  concerning  contracts  and  inheritance,  which 
mark  an  advanced  state  of  social  development. 

3.  Consider  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  material 
the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  following  statements  :  "  The 
Israel  of  Deuteronomy  is  separated   from  the  Israel  of 
the   exodus   by  a  complete  social   revolution ; "   "  The 
nomadic  tribes  have  grown  into  a  settled  and  wealthy 
community  whose  organization   no   longer  needs  to  be 
constituted,  but  only  to  be  reformed." 

4.  Consider  in  their  bearing  on  this  question  the 
31:9;  33:1, 4;        following:  (i)  certain  passages  which  manifestly  cannot 

34.44  be  ascribed  to  Moses,  e.  g.,  the  account  of  his  death  ; 

Mai. 4:4.  (2)  the  fact  that  the  first  reference  in  the  prophets  to  a 

Mosaic  code  occurs  in  post-exilic  times  ;  (3)  the  lack  of 

consistency  which  appears  in  so  many  cases  in  com- 
1:9-13;  cf'  Bxod.  parison  with  the  other  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  e.  g.,  the 

difference  in  the  representations  concerning  the  appoint- 
i : 23 f . ;  ef.  Numb,  ment  of  assistants  to  Moses  in  his  work  as  judge  ;  the 

different  accounts  of  the  sending  out  of  the  twelve  spies ; 
i:37f.;</.Numb.  the  different  causes  assigned  for  Jehovah's  anger  against 

3O  \  12* 

19:1-13;  cf.  Moses  ;  the  many  differences  between  the  last  chapters 

Numb.  35:9-34.  Qf  Numbers  and  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  though  both 

1433a.Ii;9?34B*6d'  are  assigned  to  the  same  year ;  (4)  the  repetitions  of  laws 

Chap,  16 ;  cf.  which  occur  also  in  other  books,  e.  g.,  the  law  against 

Exod.  23 : 14  ; 

Lev.,  chap.  23.     seething  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk  ;  the  law  concerning 
cha'p.20;  chap!   feasts  ;  the  decalogue  ;  the  law  of  clean  and  unclean, 
chap.  ii.  5.  Consider  the  cases  in  which  Israel's  leaders  in  the 

i  Sam.  9 : 12-14 ;      early  period  show  utter  disregard  of  Deuteronomic  laws, 
16:2;  10:3,5,8;         *  • 

i  Kings  18:30    without  any  indication  that  what   they  do  is  regarded 
ff. ;  2  Sam.  6 : 13,  '  * 

»7*'  as  illegal;  e.g.,  Samuel  sacrifices  at  other  places  than 

Jerusalem  ;  Elijah  sacrifices  on  Mount  Carmel ;  David 
also  offers  sacrifice. 

6.  Consider  the  bearing  upon  this  question  of  the 
more  important  teachings  (see  §  178). 

§  175.  The  Book  of  Deuteronomy  as  Related  to  Other 
Old  Testament  Literature, 
josh.  1:22,  23;  i.  Examine  the  strongly  Deuteronomic  character  of 

2 : 10, 1 1 ;  3:7; 

10:28-43;  certain  passages  in  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Kings,  and  con- 

judg.  2:11-23;    sider  whether  these  are  to  be  explained  (i)  as  themselves 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  163 

early,  and  indicating  the  existence  of  the  book  of  Deu-      3:4-6;  4:1-3; 

J  °  o:  i ;  10: o-io; 

teronomy  at  an  early  date;  or  (2)  as  later  interpolations  J-v^*//8'4.' 

and  expansions  by  Deuteronomic  editors  after  the  publi-  "^3' 

cation  of  Deuteronomy  in  621  B.  C.  (see  §  180).  ™£>'  17  =  7-23; 

2.  Examine   the  remarkable  cases  of  similarity  (in  4:ao;</;jer. 
thought  and  form)  between  Jeremiah  and  Deuteronomy18  l/.'jer.j3^. 
(cf.  the  sixty-six  passages  from  Deuteronomy  of  which  *$'f>c.  ' 
there  are    echoes    in  not    less   than  eighty-six   of  Jere-  x  agfaa! ' 
miah);   and  consider  whether  this  is  to  be  explained  by  7.33.   ' 
supposing  (i)  that  Jeremiah  was  particularly  fond  of,  and  a  16:13! ' 
familiar  with,  the  ancient  Deuteronomy ;  or  (2)  that  Deu-  5:15. 
teronomy  and  Jeremiah  are  the  product  of  nearly  the  »:J/  ' 
same  times,  the  latter  being  strongly  influenced  by  the  !'•»• 
former  ;  or  (3)  that  Jeremiah  was  himself  the  author  of  '^la. 
Deuteronomy.19 

3.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  in  the 
genuine  portions  of  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Isaiah  none  of 
these  Deuteronomic  phrases  are  to  be  found. 

4.  Consider,  still  further,  the  cases  in  later  literature  Neh.  1:5-11; 

9 :  6  ft. ; 

in  which  the  Deuteronomic  phrases  still  maintain  them-      Dan. 9:4-19; 

1  Chron.  39:19; 

selves,  <?.  F.,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles,  and  Daniel.  32:13;  38:8,20; 

2  Chron.  32 : 7. 

§  176.     The  Book  of  Deuteronomy  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

1.  Examine  the  allusions  in  the  New  Testament  to  Marki:44;i2:36; 
the  "  law  of  Moses,"  and  consider  the  bearing  of  these 
statements  on  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  in  gen- 

~rai  1:17;  7 -19;    cs 

cic".  15:21 ;  .18:23; 

2.  Examine  the  quotations   in  the    New  Testament  ,1Jt^OI'3'If' 

*  Matt.  19:7  i. ; 

taken  from  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  consider  the      22:24;  Mark 

•  10:3  i. ;  12 : 19; 

bearing  of  the  statements  made  in  connection  with  them      ^ke  2°a:.28: 
on  the  authorship  of  Deuteronomy  in  particular.  Rom.  10:19. 

3.  Consider  the  three  interpretations  which  have  been 
made  of  these  and  similar  passages:    (i)  that  the  state- 
ments are  literally  true  and  are  to  be  accepted  as  final ; "° 

l8ZlTNZ,  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,  1873,  PP-  671-3; 
DRIVER,  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xciii  ff. 

19  But  see  DRIVER,  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xciii  f. ;  CHEYNE,  Jeremiah,  His  Life  and 
Times,  pp.  8if. ;  J.  L.  KONIG,  Alttestamentliche  Studien,  II;  KLEINERT,  Das 
Deuteronomium  und  der  Deuteronomiker,  pp.  185-90,  235. 

20 See  ALVAH  HOVEY,  "The  New  Testament  as  a  Guide  to  the  Interpretation  of 
the  Old  Testament,"  Old  Testament  Student,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  207-13. 


164  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

(2)  that  Jesus  and  the  New  Testament  writers,  though 
knowing  the  real  facts,  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
point  of  view  of  their  times  and  accepted  the  traditional 
interpretation,  not  wishing  to  arouse  opposition  over  a 
matter  of  comparatively  slight  importance  and  thereby 
detract  attention  from  the  great  truths  they  wished  to 
teach;"  (3)  that  Jesus  and  the  New  Testament  writers 
were  not  sent  to  teach  historical  and  biblical  criticism, 
hence  were  not  given  any  more  knowledge  concerning 
such  questions  than  was  possessed  by  their  contem- 
poraries." 

§177.     Is  Not  the  Book  a  Forgery  and  a  Fraud,  if 
Not  Written  by  Moses? 

1.  Consider  (i)  whether,  in  view  of  its  own  assertions 
and  the  general  belief,  this  book  is  not  a  fraudulent 
imposture,  if  Moses  did  not  write  it ;  (2)  whether,  if  a 
forgery,  it  could  under  any  circumstances  be  counted 
among  the  sacred  writings;    (3)   how,  if  a  forgery,  it 
could    possibly  have  gained  acceptance  in   the  Jewish 
nation ;  (4)  whether  the  writer,  whoever  he  was,  did  not 
secure  its  acceptance  on  the  pretense  that  it  was  the 
work  of  Moses. 

2.  Consider,  on  the  other  hand,  (i)  whether,  in  those 
days,  there  was  anything  in   existence  like  the  literary 
usages  and  laws  of  the  modern  world,  e.  g.,  any  literary 
proprietorship,  any  literary  copyright ;  and,  if  these  were 
not  in  existence,  can  the  modern  conception  of  forgery  or 
plagiarism  have  existed  ?  (2)  the  suggestions  made  above 
(§171,  2,  3)  concerning  ancient  customs  in  connection 
with  writings ;  (3)  whether  there  are  not  books  of  excellent 
morality  which  are,  nevertheless,  literary  forgeries;13  (4) 
whether  there  have  not  been  cases  in  which  a  modern  law- 
book  has  been  palmed  off  as  ancient;*4  (5)  whether  the 
proposition  of  forgery  is  possible  in  view  of  the  fact  that 

Chap.  18.  the  supposed  forgers,  the  priests  of  Zadok,  include  laws 

"  See  G.  B.  STEVENS,  "  The   Bearing  of  New  Testament  Statements  upon  the 
Authorship  of  Old  Testament  Books,"  Old  Testament  Student,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  164-70. 

3aSee  C.  H.  TOY,  "The  New  Testament  as  Interpreter  of  the  Old  Testament," 
Old  Testament  Student,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  124-33. 

a3  E.  g.,  the  Sibylline  oracles.        **  Cf.  SIR  HENRY  MAINE,  in  Ancient  Law,  p.  82 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  l6$ 

touching  the  interests  of  the  country-Levites  which  are 

in  direct  conflict  with  the  interests  of  the  Zadokites ; 1S 

(6)  whether  the  mass  of  the  people  who  heard  the  read-  s:i;3i:i»9» 

ing  of  the  law  was  in  any  proper  position  to  consider 

critically  the  question  of  authorship ;  (7)  whether  Hilkiah 

in  permitting  the  belief  in  the  Mosaic  authorship  was 

really  guilty  of  delusion;  was  it  not  rather  illusion?  (8) 

whether  the  principle  of  illusion  is  not  (a)  necessary  in 

all  educational  work  ;a6  (K)  practiced  in  the  Old  and  New 

Testaments;27  (c}  one  of  the  greatest  elements  in  the 

teaching  of  Jesus  himself;*8  (9)  whether,  after  all,  the 

writer  of  this  book  was  not  properly  using  the  word 

Moses,  inasmuch  as  (a)  this  work  was  only  a  continuation 

of  the  work  of  Moses,  along  the  same  lines  and  for  the 

same  ends  ;  (R)  this  work  was  but  the  fuller  growth  of 

the  seed  planted  by  Moses ;  (c)  even  where  the  older 

usage    is    changed,    as    in    the    case    of    the    place   of 

worship,  the  principle   underlying   the  change    is    one 

enunciated  by  Moses ;  (d)  the  writer  is  doing  only  what 

Moses  himself  under  the  changed  circumstances  would 

have  done;  (e)  the.  writer  has  done  just  what  modern 

writers  do,  as   in  the  case   of   the   name   of  Webster's 

Dictionary,  the  original  author  having  long  been  dead, 

and    the    dictionary,    although    greatly    modified    and 

enlarged,    still    bearing    his    name ;    or    the   name    of 

Gesenius's   Hebrew    Grammar,    many   editions   having 

appeared    since   the    death    of    the   author,    with   very 

significant  changes  in  system  and  matter. 

§178.  The  Religious  Teachings  of  the  Book. —  Con- 
sider (i)  the  general  religious  teachings  and  their  sig- 
nificance (see  §  28) ;  (2)  the  teachings  of  Deuteronomy 
upon  the  special  subjects  compared  in  §§  52-166. 

§  1 79.  The  Structure  and  General  Character  of  the  Book 
of  Deuteronomy. 

i.  Consider  the  various  sections  which  constitute  the 

**  Cf.  CHEYXE,,Jeremia/i,  His  Life  and  Times,  pp.  76  f. 
36  C/.  ibid.,  pp.  77  f. 

2?  Cf.  Jer.  20  : 7,  in  which  the  prophet  utters  his  disappointment  in  his  discovery 
that  he  had  been  illuded  (not  deluded);  also  Heb.  4  : 8,  9. 
38  Cf.  John  16:  12. 


166  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

book  of  Deuteronomy  as  it  now  stands,  and  note  their 

specific  contents  : 

x:1-5.  (i)  Introduction. 

1:6—4:40.  (2)  The  first  discourse  of  Moses,  introductory. 

4:41-43-  (3)  Appointment  of  three  cities  of  refuge. 

4:44-49.  (4)  Superscription  to  the  second  discourse  of  Moses. 

5:1— 26:19;  chap.  (5)  The  second  discourse  —  the  law. 

a8. 

Chaps.  5-xi.  (a)  Hortatory  introduction. 

Chaps.  ia-a6,  as.  (ft)  Code  of  laws. 

Chap.  37.  (6)  The  acceptance  of  the  code. 

39:1—30:30.  (7)  The  third  discourse,  supplementary. 

31:1-8.  (8)  Moses's  last  words  of  encouragement. 

31:9-13.  (9)  Delivery  of  the  law  to  the  priests. 

31:14,15,33.  (10)  Commission  of  Joshua. 

31:16-33,34-30;  (n)  Song  of  Moses. 

32:45-47.'  (12)  Final  commendation  of  the  law  to  Israel. 

33:48—34;".  (13)  Moses's  blessing  and  death. 

2.  Consider  the  literary  structure  of  this  material 
upon  the  modern  hypothesis : "  ( i )  To  P  are  assigned 
the  few  touches  found  in  1:3;  32:48-52;  34:10,  $6, 
7-9 ;  consider  these  passages  in  connection  with  the 
commonly  accepted  idea  of  P,  and  note  that  by  means  of 
them,  at  a  late  date,  Deuteronomy  was  brought  into  the 
Hexateuch.  (2)  To  JE  are  assigned  the  earlier  parts  of  the 
book,  viz.,  the  incorporation  of  the  blessing  (chap.  33, 
this  being  taken  from  JE  in  its  original  form);  27  :  $-ja; 
31:14,  15;  31:23;  34:ia,  ib-$a,  6,  10.  (3)  To  D, 
the  first  Deuteronomic  writer,  and  to  D2,  a  second  Deu- 
teronomic  writer,  is  assigned  the  remainder,  divided  as 
follows  (D9  being  in  black  type):  i  :  i  f.;  1:4 — 3:13; 
3:14-17;  3:18—4:28;  4:29-31;  4:32-40;  4:41-49; 
5:1—26:19;  27:1-4;  27:7^-8;  27: 9  f.;  27:11-26; 
28:  i — 29:  8;  29:9-28;  30:  i-io;  30:  11-20;  31  :  1-13  ; 
31:16-22;  31:24-27;  31:28-30;  32:45-47;  34:11*. 
D*  followed  some  time  after  D,  and,  besides  making  the 
additions,  incorporated  the  JE  portion  and  the  song 

32  :  i-43- 

•9  So  DRIVER,  Deuteronomy,-  for  variations  consult  BERTHOLET,  Deuteronomium 
("Kurzer  Hand-Commentar") ;  STEUERNAGEL,  Deuteronomium  ("  Hand-Kommen- 
tar");  G.  F.  MOORE,  "  Deuteronomy,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  STAERK,  Das  Deute- 
ronomium, sein  Inhalt  und  seine  literarische  Form, 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  167 

3.  Consider  the  general  character  of  the  material  In 
Deuteronomy,  consisting  as  it  does  of  (i)  historical,  (2) 
legal,  (3)  hortatory  elements.  Which  of  these  elements 
is  the  controlling  one  ?  Is  the  history  narrated  simply 
for  the  sake  of  imparting  a  knowledge  of  historical 
events,  or  is  it  used  rather  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
and  enforcing  great  truths  ?  Notice  also  that  the  laws 
are  imbedded  in  a  didactic  setting,  and  that  their  gen- 
eral tone  is  not  imperative,  but  argumentative  and  per- 
suasive ;  reasons  are  assigned  for  yielding  obedience  to 
them  and  rewards  are  promised  to  the  obedient.  Consider 
also  the  way  in  which  the  prophetic  and  priestly  ele- 
ments are  combined  in  Deuteronomy,  how  the  great  ideas 
of  the  book  are  of  a  prophetic  character,  and  how  the 
priestly  laws  are  calculated  to  give  concrete  expression 
to  these  prophetic  ideas  and  secure  their  lodgment  in 
the  life  and  thought  of  the  people. 

§180.   Other  Work   of   the   Deuteronomic  Writers. — 
After  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  was  accepted  as  the  law-  josh.  1:3-9,  la- 
book  of  Israel,  there  seems  to  have  arisen  a  school  of      3:4-*;  toi*-' 

4^  *   CtC 

writers  controlled  by  the  spirit  of  Deuteronomy  whose 

activity  may  be  clearly  traced  in   the   Old   Testament  i  Kings  a :  io-ia ; 

literature  during  the  years   immediately  preceding  the  I •  14-66 ;4g •  1-9 ; 

exile  and  onward  for  a  century  or  more.     Their  work 

may  be  seen  most  clearly  in  the  books  of  Judges  and  judg.  2:7,  11-33; 

Kings,  which  they  edited  from  the  Deuteronomic  point  l:i,7-";4etc?' 

of  view,  inserting  interpretations  of  the  history  of  Israel 

based  wholly  on  the  teachings  of  Deuteronomy.     Much 

of  their  work  is  found  also  in  Joshua,  and  some  traces  i  Sam.  i :  7 1.,  xa. 

of  it  appear  in  Samuel  and  in  the  preceding  books  of  Gen.  26:1-5; 

A,       TT  L/o          \  ,r>  Exod.  15:26. 

the  Hexateuch  (§i75).3 

§  1 8 1 .   Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

HAVERNICK,  Introduction  to  the  Pentateuch  (1836,  transl.  1850),  pp.  410  f.; 
HENGSTENBERG,  Genuineness  of  the  Pentateuch  (1839,  transl.  1847);  KEIL,  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament  (1853,  3d  ed.  1873,  transl.  1869);  KUENEN,  The  Hexateuch 
(1861,  2d  ed.  1885,  transl.  1886);  KEIL,  Deuteronomy  (1862,  2d  ed.  1870,  transl. 
1867);  SCHROEDER,  Deuteronomy  (LANGE'S  "Commentary,"  1866,  transl.  1879); 
ESPIN,  Deuteronomy  ("  Speaker's  Commentary,"  1871);  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  7-44  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874  *•);  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel,  pp.  402  ff.  (ist  ed.  1878,  2d  ed.  1883,  4th  ed.  1895,  transl.  1885);  W.  R.  SMITH, 

3°  Cf.  ADDIS,  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  29  ff. 


168  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (ist  ed.  1881,  2d  ed.  1892);  BISSELL,  The  Penta- 
teuch, Its  Origin  and  Structure  (1885);  G.  Vos,  The  Mosaic  Origin  of  the  Pentateuchal 
Codes  (1886);  CHEYNE,  Jeremiah,  His  Life  and  Times  (1888,  chaps,  v-vii);  DRIVER, 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891,  6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  69-103; 
KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  7-44  (1892,  transl.  1896);  H.  E.  RYLE, 
Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  ( 1 892,  2d  ed.  1895),  see  Index;  MoNTEFlORE,  Religion  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("  Hibbert  Lectures,"  1892),  pp.  161-221;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  article 
"Deuteronomy,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893);  B.  W.  BACON,  The 
Triple  Tradition  of  the  Exodus  (1894);  CORNILL,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1895),  pp. 
80-92;  W.  H.  GREEN,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  (1895),  see  Index; 
DRIVER,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy  (1895),  pp.  i-xcv ; 
A.  HARPER,  Deuteronomy  (Expositor's  Bible,  1895);  C.  J.  BALL,  "  The  Blessing  of 
Moses,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  1896,  pp.  118-37;  L.  W. 
BATTEN,  "  The  Origin  and  Character  of  Deuteronomy,"  Biblical  World,  April, 
1898,  pp.  246-54;  ED.  KONIG,  "The  Unity  of  Deuteronomy,"  Expository  Times, 
Oct.  and  Dec.,  1898,  pp.  16-19,  124-7;  Feb.,  1899,  pp.  227-30;  G.  L.  ROBINSON, 
"The  Genesis  of  Deuteronomy,"  Expositor,  Oct.  and  Nov.,  1898,  pp.  241-61,  351-69; 
Feb.,  Apr.,  and  May,  1899,  pp.  151-60,  271-95,  356-71;  H.  E.  RYLE,  article  "Deuter- 
onomy," HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I  (1898);  TH.  TYLER,  "  Notes  on 
Deut.  32:42,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  1898,  pp.  379  f.;  ADDIS,  The  Documents  of 
the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp.  2-30;  W.  P.  McKEE,  "Transient  and  Perma- 
nent Elements  in  Deuteronomy,"  Biblical  World  April,  1899,  pp.  249  ff.;  H.  G. 
MITCHELL,  "  The  Use  of  the  Second  Person  in  Deuteronomy,"  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  1899,  pp.  61-109;  BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile  (1899),  pp. 
170-80;  F.  H.  WOODS,  article  "  Hexateuch,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol. 
I,  (1899);  G.  F.  MOORE,  article  "Deuteronomy,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I  (1899); 
MARTIN,  The  Tora  of  Moses  (1900);  STIBITZ,  "The  Centralization  of  Jehovah  Wor- 
ship in  Israel,"  Reformed  Church  Review,  Jan.,  1900;  DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  II  (1900);  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch, 
Vol.  I  (1900);  HAYMAN,  "The  Blessing  of  Moses,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic 
Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVII  (1901),  pp.  96-106;  WELLHAUSEN  AND 
CHEYNE,  article  "Hexateuch,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901);  WARREN,  "The 
Origin  of  the  Pentateuch,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XVIII  (1901),  pp.  194  ff. 

KUEPER,  Jeremias  librorum  sacrorum  interpres  et  vindex  (1838),  pp.  4-45;  J.  L. 
KONIG,  "  Das  Deuteronomium  und  der  Prophet  Jeremiah,"  Alttestamentliche  Studien, 
Vol.  II  (1839);  RIEHM,  Die  Gesetzgebung  Mosis  im  Lande  Moab  (1854);  K.  H.  GRAF, 
Der  Segen  Mote's  (1857);  F.  W.  SCHULTZ,  Das  Deuteronomium  (1859);  KNOBEL,  Das 
Deuteronomium  ("  Exegetisches  Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1861);  KAMP- 
HAUSEN,  Das  Lied  Moses  (1862);  KOSTERS,  De  Historie-Beschouwing  van  den  Deutero- 
nomist  met  de  Berichten  in  Gen. — Num.  vergeleken  (1868);  KLOSTERMANN,  "Das  Lied 
Mose's  und  das  Deuteronomium,"  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1871  f.;  KLEINERT,  Das 
Deuteronomium  und  der  Deuteronomiker  (1872);  REINKE,  "Ueber  das  unter  dem 
Konige  Josia  aufgefundene  Gesetzbuch,"  Beitrdge  zur  Erkldrung  des  Alten  Testa- 
ments, 8  (1872),  pp.  131-80;  RIEHM,  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1873,  pp.  165-200;  ZUNZ, 
Zeitschriftderdeutschen  morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XXVIII  (1873),  pp.  669-76; 
KAYSER,  Das  vorexilische  Buck  der  Urgeschichte  Israel  und  seine  Erweiterungen 
(1874);  HOLLENBERG,  "Die  deuteronomischen  Bestandtheile  des  Buches  Josua," 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1874,  pp.  462-506;  HAVET,  Le  Christianisme  et  ses  origines, 


LEGAL    LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC    CODE  1 69 

Vol.  Ill  (1878),  pp.  32  ff.;  REUSS,  Ltkistoire  sainte  et  la  loi,  Vol.  I  (1879),  pp.  154  ff.; 
J.  J.  P.  VALETON,  "  Deuteronomium,"  Theologische  Studien,  Vol.  V  (1879),  pp.  169-206, 
291-313;  VI  (1880),  pp.  133-74,  303-20;  VII  (1881),  pp.  39-56,  205-28;  STEINTHAL, 
"Das  fiinfte  Buch  Mose,"  Zeitschrift  fur  Volkerpsychologie  und  Sprachwissenschaft, 
1879,  pp.  1-28;  IDEM,  "Die  ersahlenden  Stucke  im  fiinften  Buche  Mose,"  ibid.,  1880, 
pp.  253-89;  DELITZSCH,  "Pentateuch-kritische  Studien,"  Zeitschrift  fur  kirchliche  Wis- 
senschaft und  kirchliches  Leben,Vo\.  I  (1880),  pp.  445  ff.,  503 ff.,  559  ff.;  STADE,  Zeit- 
schrift fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  V  (1885),  pp.  292-300;  D'EiCHTHAL, 
Melanges  de  critique  bibliqut  (1886);  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1887), 
pp.  148-73,649-71;  MARTIN,  Introduction  a  la  critique  gtntrale  deTAncien  Testa- 
ment, Vol.  I  (1887),  pp.  295  ff.;  VERNES,  Une  nouvelle  hypothese  sur  la  composition  du 
Deut.;  examen  des  vues  de  M.  d^ Eichthal  (\^>%"]\,  KUENEN,  "De  Jongste  Phasen  der 
Critiek  van  den  Hexateuch,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  1888,  pp.  35  ff.;  HORST,  "Etudes 
sur  le  Deut.,"  Revue  de  rkistoire  des  religions,  Vol.  XVI  (1888),  pp.  28-65-,  XVII 
(1889),  pp.  1-22;  XVIII  (1890),  pp.  320-34;  XXIII  (1895),  184-200;  XXVII  (1899), 
pp.  119-76;  WELLHAUSEN,  Die  Composition  des  Hexateuch  und  der  historischen 
Biicher  des  Alien  Testaments  (1889,  3d  ed.  1899);  BAUDISSIN,  Geschichte  des  alttesta- 
mentlichen  Priesterthums  (1889);  VAN  HOON ACKER,  L'origine  des  4  premiers  chapitres 
du  Deut.  (1889);  A.  ZAHN,  Das  Deuteronomium  (1890);  KLOSTERMANN,  "Beitrage 
zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  des  Pentateuch,"  Neue  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  1890-92; 
MONTET,  Le  Deuteronome  (1891);  CORNILL,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891, 
2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  29-45;  WESTPHAL,  Les  sources  du  Pentateuch,  Vol.  II  (1892),  pp. 
32  ff.;  OETTLI,  Das  Deuteronomium  (1893);  H.  PREISS,  Zum  Deuteronomium — ein 
Beitrag  zur  Kritik  des  Pentateuchs  (1892);  MARTI,  "Daserste  officielle  Bekenntnis," 
Zeitschrift  fur  Theologie  und  Kirche,  1892,  pp.  29-73;  REUSS,  Die  heilige  Geschichte 
und  das  Gesetz  (1893),  pp.  io6ff.;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
geschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d.  ed.  1899),  §  16;  KoNlG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament 
(1893),  PP-  209-25;  WlLDEBOER,  Die  Litteratur  des  Alten  Testament  (1893,  tr-  X894), 
§  ii;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893),  pp.  255-331;  STEUERNAGEL, 
Der  Rahmen  des  Deuteronomium  (1894);  WILLY  STAERK,  Das  Deuteronomium,  sein 
Inhalt  und  seine  literarische  Form  (1894);  PIEPENBRING,  "Lare'forme  et  le  code  de 
Josias,"  Revue  de  I'histoire  des  religions,  Vol.  XXIX  (1894),  pp.  123  ff.;  STEUERNAGEL, 
Die  Entstehung  des  deuteronomischen  Gesetzes  (1896);  NAUMANN,  Das  Deuterono- 
mium (1897);  D.  CASTELLI,  "  Una  congettura  sopra  Deuteronomio  32  :5,"  Zeitschrift 
fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XVII  (1897),  PP-  337 f-;  M.  LAMBERT,  "Le 
cantique  de  Moise,  Deut.  XXXII,"  Revue  des  etudes  juives,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1898),  pp. 
47-52;  VON  GALL,  "  Deuteronomium  und  Deuteronomius,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttest- 
amentliche WtssenscAaft,Vo\.XIX.  (1899),  pp.  173-7;  J-  HALEVY,  "Le  Deuteronome," 
Revue  sJmitifUf,Vo\.VII  (1899),  pp.  313-32;  BERTHOLET,  Deuteronomium  erklart 
("Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1899),  pp.  ix-xxix;  FINKE,  Wer 
hat  die 5  Biicher  Moses  verfasst?  (1900);  KLOSTERMANN,  Deuteronomium  und  Grdgds 
(1900);  STEUERNAGEL,  Uebersetzung  und  Erkldrung  der  Bucher  Deuteronomium 
und  Josua,  und  allgemeine  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  ("  Hand-Kommentar  zum 
Alten  Testament,"  1900);  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Bucher  des  Alten  Testamentes 
(1901),  pp.  103-22 ;  HERNER,  Ist  der  zweite  Dekalog  alter  als  das  Bundesbuch  ?  (1901) ; 
HUMMELAUER,  Commentarius  in  Deuteronomium  (1901). 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE    LEGAL    LITERATURE  —  EZEKIEL's   CONTRIBUTION. 

§  182.     The   Historical    Situation   of  which    Ezekiel 
and   his   work   formed  a   part   deserves   careful    study 

(§§3°ff.)-' 

Kings 24: 1-7.  I-  Gather  together  the  principal  facts  (i)  of  the  first 

deportation  as  narrated  in  Kings,  viz.,  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  its  character;  the  reign  of  Jehoiachin,  the 
invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  carrying  away  of  the 
princes,  etc.  (vs.  14);  the  date  of  this  being  597  B.  C.; 

2  Kings  25:1-21;     (2)  of   the    second  deportation,  including  the  reiern  of 
Jer.,  chap.  52. 

Zedekiah,  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  its  destruction,  the  car- 
rying away  of  the  residue  (vs.  1 1). 

2 Kings  25:22-26.         2.  Note  (i)  the  situation  after  the  destruction  of  the 

city  under  Gedaliah,  and  the  story  of  Gedaliah's  murder; 

jer.,  chap.  24;        (2)  the  prophet's  estimate  of  those  taken  away  captive 

29:15-20.  an(j  tjj0se  aiiowe(j  to  remain  (the  good  and  the  bad  figs), 

and  consider  (a)  whether  it  was  the  captives  or   those 

left  behind  who  were  adjudged   the  more  important; 
Ezek.  11:14-21;         ,        ...      ,  .   ,       ,    ,  ,  , 

jer.,  chaps.  42-  also  (o)  which  of  these  two  classes  was  supposed  to  be  suf- 

Bzek.  33:241.  fering  the  more  keenly;  still  further  (c),  how  the  lower 
classes  left  behind  regarded  these  matters. 

jer.,  chap.  29.  3.  Study  Jeremiah's  letter*  to  the  captives  in  Babylon 

and  formulate  the  policy  therein  advocated  in  respect  to 
business,  marriage,  etc. 

'See  McCURDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  227-431  ; 
WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  488-98  ;  STADE,  Geschichte 
des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  675-703;  II,  1-67;  GuTHE,  art.  "Israel,"  §§40-47, 
Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II. 

*It  is  very  probable  that  Jer.,  chap.  29,  at  least  in  its  present  form,  is  from  a 
later  writer,  for:  (i)  Jeremiah  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person  and  described  "as  the 
prophet ; "  (2)  the  nature  of  the  advice  given  suggests  that  it  comes  from  one  looking 
back  upon  the  conditions  he  is  dealing  with,  rather  than  one  living  in  the  midst  of 
movements  the  outcome  of  which  was  still  uncertain;  (3)  parts  of  it  seem  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  Books  of  Kings ;  (4)  the  booklet,  chaps.  26-29,  bears  marks  of 
late  workmanship,  linguistic  and  otherwise.  See,  e.  g.,  CORNILL,  The  Book  of  Jere- 
miah (SBOT);  SCHMIDT,  art.  "Jeremiah,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  DUHM,  Das  Buck 
Jeremia  ("  Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  A.  T."). 

170 


LEGAL    LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S    CONTRIBUTION  17! 

4.  Consider  the  general  effect  which  the  news  of  the  Ezek.  33:211 
fall  of  Jerusalem  must  have  had  when  it  reached  the  ears 

of  those  who  were  already  in  captivity,  among  whom  was 
Ezekiel. 

See  GUTHE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  239  ff. 

5.  Note  (i)  that  the  period  was  one  of  transition,  or, 
perhaps  more  truly,  of  revolution ;  one  in  which  mon- 
olatry  was  to  be  supplanted  by  monotheism,  idolatry  by 
the  sole  worship   of   Jehovah ;    (2)   that   the  principal 
scene  of  action  was  no  longer  Palestine,  but  Babylon ; 

(3)  that  Israel  was  now  scattered,  the  nationality  broken ; 

(4)  that  the  work   of  the  prophetic  order  was   giving 
place  to  that  of  the  priestly  order ;  for  Jeremiah  and  Eze- 
kiel were  priests,  and  the  books  of  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Jer. » :  i ;  Hzek. 
and   Malachi,  which  follow,  are  far  more  priestly  than 
prophetic  (cf.  §  34). 

§  183.  The  Preparation  of  Ezekiel. 

1.  Consider  (i)the  significance  of  the  fact  that  he  was  1:3.3 
a  priest,  and  the  great  influence,  at  this   time,  of  the 
priestly  position,  second  only  to  that  of  the    king;   (2) 

the  character  of  the  training  which  he  would   receive;  22:25, 36; 4:14. 
(3)  the  influence  which  must  have  been  exercised  over 
him  by  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  and  by  Jeremiah's  ser- 
mons (see  §  184). 

2.  Note  (i)  the  fact  that  Ezekiel  had  been  in  cap-  33;«;  cf. 26:1  f. 
tivity  already  eleven  years4  when  news  of  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  was  received ;  (2)  the  fact  that  the  call  came  to  1: 2- 

him  after  five  years'  experience  in  captivity  (592  B.  C.); 

(3)  the  latest  date  in  the  book  (570  B.  C.).  a9:I7. 

3.  Study  (i)  the  strange  and  wonderful  character  of 

3  All  Scripture  references  in  this  chapter  cited  without  the  name  of  the  book  are 
from  Ezekiel. 

4  33  : 21  states  that  the  tidings  came  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  captivity;  but  we 
learn  from  26 :  I  f.  that  Ezekiel  already  knew  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  the  captivity.     The  Syriac  version  has  eleventh  year  in  33: 21  also,  and  this  is 
probably  correct.    Jerusalem  fell  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month  of  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  (2  Kings  25  : 2  f.;  Jer.  39  :  2),  which  was  also  the  eleventh 
year  of  the  captivity,  since  Zedekiah  was  placed  on  the  throne  when  Jehoiachin  was 
removed  to  Babylon  (2  Kings  24  :  15  ff.);  and  it  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
captives  in  Babylon  did  not  hear  of  the  fall  of  their  city  until  a  year  and  a  half  after 
the  event. 


172  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  visions  which  constituted  the  call,  including  (a)  the 
*:4-«i.  vision  of  God — what  conceptions  of  God  are  implied 

in  the  four  living  creatures  (vss.  5-14),  the  four  wheels 
a:iff.  (vss.  15-21),  the  throne  and  glory  (vss.  22-28)?  (b)  the 

8:3-7.  prophet's  introduction  to  his  work  by  the  God  seen  in 

3:^-3:3.  the  vision  —  the  people    a  rebellious  one,  the  inspira- 

3:4-9.  tion  accorded  him,  the  special  strength  given  him,  his 

3:10-15.  particular  mission  to  the  captives  of   Tel-abib,  the  pre- 

3:i&-3«.  cise  character  of  his  function,  viz.,  to  be  a  watchman  ;  (2) 

33:1-9.  his  later  feeling  of  responsibility  as  a  watchman. 

4.  Examine,  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  better  point 
of  view  for  an  appreciation  of  his  work,  certain  refer- 
3:4-11, 26;  14:1-5.  ences  to  his  life  and  activity  in  exile:  (i)  the  character 
11:25.  of  the  people  with  whom  he  was  called  to  work;  (2)  his 

*o:i;8.-i;  14:1-5.   own  character  as  Jehovah's  spokesman  ;  (3)  the  fact  that 
he  was  frequently  consulted  in  his  own   house  by  the 
44:15-18.  19-37.      elders  of  Israel ;  (4)  his  use  of  the  death  of  his  wife  as 
an  occasion  fora  public  message;  (5)  the  threatening 
character   of   his   early   sermons ;     (6)  the   consolatory 
33:30-33.  character  of  his  later  sermons ;  (7)  his  place  and  stand- 

ing among  the  exiles. 

§184.  Ezekiel's  Prophetic  Work.  —  For  the  better 
understanding  of  Ezekiel's  work  as  a  priest,  and  the 
priestly  structure  of  which  he  was  the  author,  it  is 
important  that  his  work  as  prophet  should  be  appreci- 
ated. This  is  perhaps  most  easily  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  that  of  Jeremiah. 

i.  Consider  the  degree  of  dependence  which  Eze- 
kiel  exhibits  in  relation  to  Jeremiah  as  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages  =3:3,  ef.  Jer.  15:16;  3  :  17,  cf.  Jer. 
6:17;  7:14,  27,  cf.  Jer.  4:5-9;  chaP-  J3»  </•  Jer. 
14:13-16;  13:  10,  cf.  Jer.  6:  14;  16  :  51,  cf.  Jer.  3  :  n  ; 
chap.  18,  cf.  Jen  31:29  f.;  chap.  20,  cf.  Jer.  11:3-8; 
24 : 16-23,  cf.  Jer.  16  :  3-9  ;  chaps.  29-31,  cf.  Jer.,  chap. 
46;  chap.  34,  cf.  Jer.  23:1-4;  36:26,  cf.  Jer.  24:7; 
37:24,  cf.  Jer.  30  :  9  ;  38  :  15,  cf.  Jer.  6  :  22. 

See  especially  SMEND,  Der  Prophet  Ezechiel  ("  Kurzgefasstes 
exegetisches  Handbuch,"  1880),  pp.  xxiv  f.;  C.  H.  TOY,  art. 
"Ezekiel,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  col.  1462  ;  DAVIDSON,  The 
Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  (Camb.  Bible,  1892),  pp.  xix  f,  xlvi  ff. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE EZEKIEL's    CONTRIBUTION  173 

2.  Study  (i)  the  place  occupied  in  his  preaching  by  Chap.  18;  ef. 
the  teaching  of  individual  responsibility  —  does  he  elabo-      ^^'^  xf6' 
rate  the  teaching  of  Jeremiah  on  this  subject  ?  does  he 

give   it  any  special  application  to  the  exiles?  (2)  his  33:1-17. 

counsels  concerning  submission  to  Babylon  and  his  pre- 
,.  ^.  T  17:11-21;  c/.  jet 

dictions  concerning  Jerusalem  s  fall,  as  compared  with      28:12-17; 

those  of  Jeremiah.  38:14-23- 

3.  Consider  (i)  his  ethical  and  social  teachings  as  Chaps.  18,22. 
enunciated,  e.  g.,  in  chaps.   18  and  22,  and  note  their 

high   character   so    far   as   concerns   relations   between 
Israelites ;  (2)  his  attitude  toward  the  outside  nations, 
to  which  no  obligations  are  due,  there  being  as  yet  no  Chaps.  25-32. 
international  code. 

4.  Consider,  also,  if  possible,  Ezekiel's  conceptions 
concerning    (i)    God — how   far    does    he   sympathize 
with  the  older  ideas,  how  far  with  the  new  ?     Is  he  a 
monotheist  ?  or  does  he  accept  the  existence  of  other 

deities?     Is  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as  a  universal  1:26,28;  10:19; 
God  associated  with  the  older  idea  of  the  tribal  God?     43:7?'3 

(2)  Man  —  his  inward  life,  his  outward  life,  reward  and  18:28;  18:5-8. 

punishment,  the  hereafter  —  sheol,  transformation  of  the  26:20531:14-17; 

heart  (regeneration);  cf.  Jer.  31:  33.  aefae1/"32 

See  TOY,  art.  "  Ezekiel,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  cols. 
1467  ff  ;  DAVIDSON,  op,  cit.,  pp.  xxxi-xliii. 

§  1 85.  Ezekiel's  Own  Representations  Concerning  Chaps. 
40-48. —  Frequent  references  are  made  by  the  prophet 
to  the  origin  of  the  material  contained  in  these  chapters. 
Consider  the  various  statements:  (i)  the  man  with  an  40:1-4. 
appearance  like  brass  and  a  line  of  flax  in  his  hand,  and 
a  measuring  reed  —  what  or  whom  did  this  man  symbol- 
ize ?  what  was  his  function  ?   what  the  purpose  of  his 
work?   (2)    the  various  steps    in   his   guidance   of   the  40:17,34,  28,39, 
prophet;  (3)  the  messages  delivered  from  time  to  time  42:13;  43': e-ia.  ' 
in  the  progress  of  the  journey;  (4)  the  visions  of  divine  44:5-8;  47:68. 

glory  revealed;  (5)  the  use  of  the  phrase,  "thus  saith  43  =  1-5 544:4. 

w,o  T  ~  A  r~A  »   "  43;  18:44: 9;  45:9; 

the  Lord  God.  46:1, 16;  47:13. 

Formulate,  upon  the  basis  of  this  material,  a  state- 
ment covering  the  author's  point  of  view  on  this  ques- 
tion. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  1 86.     The  Structure  and  General  Character  of  Ezek., 
Chaps.  40-48. 

40:1—43:13.  i.  Note  the  contents  of  the  section:    (i)  plans  and 

43:13-27.  specifications  for  the  future  temple;  (2)  the  ordinances 

44:4-31.  for  the  erection  and  dedication  of  the  altar ;  (3)  the  law 

45=1-5.  concerning    the   priesthood;    (4)    the   sacred    territory 

5:6-25.  located   and   defined ;   (5)  regulations  in   reference  to 

44:1-3;  46:1-18.     sacrifices;  (6)  the  function  of  "the  prince,"  with  special 
46:19-24.  .  reference  to  his  religious  obligations;  (7)  the  law  pro- 

viding special  places  for  the  cooking  of  the  sacrifices 
47:1-".  offered  by  the  people;    (8)   description  of  the  living 

47  =  13—48:29.         waters  issuing  from  the  temple;  (9)  a  statement  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  land  and  its  allotment  among   the 
tribes,  with  especial  provision  for  proselytes  (47  :  22  f.)  ; 
48:30-35.  (10)  the  dimensions  of  the  Holy  City  and  the  location  of 

its  twelve  gates. 

40:1.  2.  Consider  (i)  that   this    material   comes   from   a 

date  twelve  years  later  than  any  portion  of  the  book5 
except  29:  17,  18;  (2)  that  there  is  in  this  section  no 
"teaching"  on  any  subject;  (3)  that  there  is  given  here 
a  picture  in  which  a  people  is  represented  as  living  in 
an  ideal  condition ;  (4)  "that  it  does  not  describe  how 
salvation  is  to  be  attained,  for  the  salvation  is  realized 
and  enjoyed  ;  it  describes  the  people  and  their  condition 
and  their  life  now  that  redemption  has  come  ;"6  (5)  that, 
with  the  temple  occupying  the  central  place,  there  are 
taken  up  questions  relating  to  the  priests,  the  sacrifices, 
the  land  including  the  Dead  Sea,  the  division  of  terri- 
tory, the  laying  out  of  the  city;  (6)  that,  in  addition, 
there  are  the  regulations  regarding  the  functions  of  the 
"prince;"  (7)  that,  in  other  words,  it  is  an  ideal  state 

i  Attention  may  be  called  here  to  the  fact  that  the  genuineness  of  the  book  or  of 
certain  parts  of  it  has  been  called  in  question  by  some  scholars  ;  <?.  g.,  ZUNZ,  Gottes- 
dienstliche  Vortrage  der  Juden  (2d  ed.),  pp.  165  ff.,  and  in  ZDMG.,  Vol.  XXVII,  pp. 
676  ff.,  and  GEIGER,  Urschrift  und  iibersetzungen  der  Bibel,  p.  23,  place  the  whole 
book  in  the  Persian  period;  SEINECKE,  Geschichte  des  Volke*  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1884), 
pp.  I  ff.,  assigns  it  to  the  Maccabsean  period  ;  VOLZ,  Die  vorexilische  Jahweprophetie 
und  der  Messias  (1897),  p.  84,  note,  regards  the  last  nine  chapters  as  the  work  of  a 
disciple  of  Ezekiel.  These  views,  however,  have  not  met  with  any  general  acceptance. 

• 

6  A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  op.  cit.,  p.  288. 


LEGAL  LITERATURE EZEKIEL  S  CONTRIBUTION       175 

which  is  thus  presented,  a  conception  which  constitutes 
the  germ  of  the  doctrine  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

3.  Consider,  still  further,  (i)  its  form,  namely  vision,  40:2:43:3. 
in  contrast  with  the  form  of  Deuteronomy,  which  was 
the  sermonic;  (2)  how,  not  infrequently,  it  lapses  into  4s:'«-;  46:iff-; 
the   form    of   sermon    or   address    to   the   people;    (3) 
whether  in  spirit  it  more  nearly  resembles  Deuteronomy 
or  Leviticus ;  (4)  the  strange  and  confusing  mingling  of 
the  natural  and  supernatural  elements,  and  show   the 
origin  of  this  in  the  prophetic  conception  of  life  ;  (5) 
the  relation  of  this  picture  to  the  preceding  context,  in  39:25-39- 
which  Israel  is  represented  as  having  now  received  the 
outpouring  of  the  divine  spirit  —  is  it  not  the  climax  of 
the  book  ? 

§  187.   The  Principal  Ideas  of  the  section  deserve  clas- 
sification and  formulation : 

1.  Note  the  statement,  made  above,  to  the  effect  that 
there  were  no  "teachings"  in  the  section ;  this  does  not 
mean,  however,  that  the  picture  does  not  rest  upon  cer- 
tain conceptions,   or   imply   the  truth  of  certain  great 
ideas. 

2.  For  a  general  statement  of  the  ideas  of  Ezekiel  in 
this  section,  see  §31.     For  the  material  on  the  priest, 
see  §§65,  66;  on  the  place  of  worship,  §§77,  78;  on 
sacrifice,  §§89,  90;   on   feasts,  §102;   on  the  sabbath, 
§§114,  115;  on  clean  and  unclean,  §§  1 28,  1 29. 

3.  Consider  some  of  the  more  important  of  the  great 
ideas  that  underlie  the  form  of  presentation  employed  in 
these  closing  chapters,  keeping  in  mind  constantly  the 
necessity  in  many  cases  of  basing  our  conclusions  largely 
upon  the  general    tone  and  character  of   the   material 
rather  than  upon  specific  statements  and  texts,    (i)  The 
idea  of  God — what  is  the  bearing  upon  this  idea  of  (a) 

the  fact  that  the  temple,  Jehovah's  house,  is  placed  in  the  45=1-8. 
middle  of  the  Holy  Land  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  the  land  of  the  priests,  Jehovah's  ministers,  thus  being 
kept  from  contact  with  everything  profane  and  pollut- 
ing? (b]  the  stringent  regulations  concerning  those  who  44:4-28. 
may  approach  Jehovah  to  offer  sacrifice,  and  concerning 
their  apparel,  etc.?  (c)  the  exclusion  of  foreigners  from 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


the  temple  and  of  the  laity  from  the  inner  court  of  the 
temple  ?  Does  not  the  whole  representation  in  chaps. 
40-48  give  the  impression  of  the  great  exaltation  and 

43:1-5.  holiness    of   Jehovah    in    comparison    with    everything 

43:6-9;  48:35-  human?  (2)  Jehovah's  relation  to  Israel  —  note  that 
Jehovah  is  represented  as  having  restored  his  people  to 
favor,  and  as  requiring  of  them  holiness  in  order  that 

44:7,9.  they  may  enjoy  his  favor  forever.     Note  also  the  feeling 

of  superiority  over  all  foreigners  that  appears  in  the 
restrictions  placed  upon  the  latter,  though  provision  is 
made  for  proselytes.  Does  not  the  spirit  of  particular- 
ism appear  here  very  clearly  ?  (3)  The  subordination  of 
political  to  religious  ideals  —  note  (a)  the  fact  that  the 
"prince's"  functions  are  almost  wholly  religious;  (l>)  the 

45:8-xa;46:i6ff.  exceedingly  few  non-religious  matters  that  are  dealt 
with ;  (c)  the  complete  silence  on  all  matters  relating  to 
national  ambition  or  development ;  (d)  the  fact  that  the 
nation  is  represented  rather  as  a  community  existing 
only  for  religious  purposes ;  (e)  the  emphasis  laid  on  the 
ceremonial  as  compared  with  the  ethical  side  of  the  reli- 

43:axff.;  44:27;  gious  life.  (4)  The  great  emphasis  laid  upon  the  idea  of 
atonement  as  an  evidence  of  an  increasing  sense  of  the 
exceeding  sinfulness  of  sin.  Is  this  not  a  correlative  of 
the  exalted  idea  of  Jehovah's  holiness  ? 

§  1 88.  The  General  Relation  of  Ezek.,  Chaps.  40-48,  to 
Deuteronomy. 

1.  Consider  the  place  of  the  priests  in  both  sections, 
noting  that  Deuteronomy  makes  no  distinction  between 
priests  and  Levites,  while  Ezekiel  degrades  the  Levites, 
gives  the  reasons  for  so  doing,  and  restricts  the  priest- 
hood to  the  sons  of  Zadok. 

2.  Consider  the  comparative  fulness  in  the  treatment 
of  (i)  the  duties  of  priests,  (2)  the  provision  made  for  the 
priests;  does  not  this  indicate  a  great  advance  in  the 
conception  of  the  place  and  dignity  of  the  priesthood  ? 

3.  Consider  the  absence  in   Ezek.,  chaps.  40-48,  as 
compared  with  Deuteronomy,  of  warnings  against  idola- 
try. 

Dent,  chap.  16.  4.  Consider   the   feasts   as   enumerated   in    Deuter- 

onomy, the   sacrificial    details   being   absent ;    while  in 


44 : 10-15  ;</'.' 

Deut.  18:1-8, 


44:17-27;  cf. 

Deut.  17:9. 
44:29! ;  chaps. 

45,  48 ;  cf.  Deut 

18 : 1-4. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S    CONTRIBUTION  If? 

Ezekiel7  the  details  of  the  material  are  given,  and  a  Ezek.  45:31-45. 
special  ceremony  of  purification  of  the  sanctuary  on  the  45:i8-ao(LXX). 
first  day  of  the  first  and  seventh  months. 

5.  Consider  the  apparent  failure  of  the  Deuteronomic 
scheme  in  the  catastrophe  of  the  exile ;  for  was  not  this 
scheme  intended  for  a  "holy"  people,  and  to  serve  as  Dcut. 7:6. 
the  expression  of  a  people  closely  united  with  a  "holy" 

God  ?  Was  it  not  intended  to  bring  the  people  into  a 
life  which  should  be  worthy  of  Jehovah,  their  Lord,  and 
was  not  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  understood  to  sepa- 
rate them  from  him  ? 

6.  Is    not    Ezekiel's   scheme  clearly  prepared   for  a 
people  restored  from   captivity,  and  not  only  restored, 

but  actually  purified  and  regenerated?     "It  opens  with  36:34-28. 
an  elaborate  account  of  a  new  temple  set  on  the  sacred 
hill.     The  'law  of  the  house'  is  expounded  with  much  40:1—43:13. 
detail,  and  the  prophet  then  announces  the  ordinances 
of  the  altar.     These  are  followed  in  turn  by  regulations 
for  the  priesthood  and  the  appropriate  sacrifices,  and  a 
scheme  of  cultus  is  thus  displayed  by  which  the  people, 
once  more  consecrated,  shall  be  preserved  from  further 
temptation  to  unfaithfulness,  and  shall  secure  the  pres- 
ence of  Jehovah  in  their  midst  forever."8 

The  relationship  of  Ezekiel's  cultus  to  that  of  P  will 
be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 

§  189.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

P.  FAIRBAIRN,  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Ezekiel (1851);  HENDERSON,  The  Book 
of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  Translated,  etc.  (1855);  H.  SMITH  WARLEIGH,  Ezekiefs  Temple 
(1856);  COLENSO,  The  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined  { 1862-79), 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  3-23;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869-70,  transl.  1882),  Vol.  II,  pp. 
190  ff.;  CURRIE,  Ezekiel  ("  Speaker's  Commentary,"  1876);  KUENEN,  The  Prophets  and 
Prophecy  in  Israel  (1877),  pp.  238-42  ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of 
Israel  (1878,  transl.  1885),  pp.  378  ff.;  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish 
Church  (ist  ed.  1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  442  f.;  PLUMPTRE,  "Ezekiel:  An  Ideal  Biog- 
raphy," Expositor,  1884  ;  KUENEN,  Modern  Review,  Oct.,  1884,  pp.  617-40  ;  KUENEN, 
The  Hexateuch  (transl.  from  the  Dutch,  1886),  §  15,  10;  H.  SULLEY,  The  Temple  of 
Ezekiel's  Prophecy  (1888);  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vo\.  I  (1888-92,  transl. 
1895),  PP-  I25  #•*»  F.  W.  FARRAR,  "The  Last  Nine  Chapters  of  Ezekiel,"  Expositor, 
1889,  pp.  I  ff.;  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891, 
6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  145  ff.,  278-98;  KIRKPATRICK,  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets  (1892), 

i  Probably  from  oversight  the  Feast  of  Weeks  is  omitted. 

•  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  p.  127. 


1/8  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

pp.  320-45 ;  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("  Hibbert  Lectures," 
1892),  see  Index;  A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  ("Camb.  Bible," 
1892);  SKINNER,  Ezekiel  (?  Expositor's  Bible,"  1895);  CORNILL,  The  Prophets  of  Israel 
(1895)  PP-  "5-30;  L.  B.  PATON,  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Review,  Jan.,  1896,  pp. 
98  ff.;  BRIGGS,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  (ad  ed.  1897),  pp.  126  ff.;  DOUGLAS, 
"Ezekiel's  Temple,"  Expository  Times,  Vol.  IX  (1898),  pp.  515  ff.;  SKINNER,  article 
"Ezekiel,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I  (1898);  WOOD,  article  "Hexa- 
teuch," HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II  (1899),  p.  374;  C.  H.  TOY,  The 
Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel — A  New  English  Translation  ("  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,"  Part  XII,  1899);  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD- 
BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I  (1900),  pp.  126  ff.;  C.  H.  TOY,  article  "Ezekiel," 
Encyclopadia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901);  WELLHAUSEN  AND  CHEYNE,  article  "  Hexa- 
teuch," Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901),  coll.  2051  f.;  KONIG,  "The  Priests  and 
the  Levites  in  Ezek.  44  :  7-15,"  Expository  Times,  April,  1901  ;  COBERN,  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel  (igoi). 

HAFENREFFER,  Templum  Ezekiel  (1613);  E.  F.  ROSENMULLER,  Scholia  in  Vetus 
Testamentum,  Pars  VI  (2d  ed.  1826),  pp.  575  ff.;  ZUNZ,  Die  gottesdienstlichen  Vortrage 
derjuden  (1832,  2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  165-70;  J.  F.  BOTTCHER,  Proben  alttestamentlicher 
Schrifterklarung  (1833),  pp.  218-365;  HAVERNICK,  Commentar  uber  den  Prophet 
Ezechiel  (1843);  HlTZIG,  Der  Prophet  Ezechiel  erkldrt  (1847);  BALMER-RlNCK,  Des 
Propheten  Ezechiel  Gesicht  vom  Tempel  (1856);  TH.  KLIEFOTH,  Das  Buck  Ezechiels 
iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  (1864  f.);  GRAF,  Geschichte  der  Biicher  des  alien  Bundes  (1866), 
pp.  81-3;  HENGSTENBERG,  Der  Prophet  Ezechiel  (1867);  KEIL,  Der  Prophet  Ezechiel 
(1868,  2d  ed.  1882);  SCHRADER,  article  "Ezechiel,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,\o\. 
II  (1869);  ZUNZ,  "  Bibelkritisches.  II:  Ezechiel,"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Mor- 
genldndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XXVII  (1873),  pp.  676-81;  SCHRODER,  Das  Buck 
Ezechiel  ("Langes  Bibelwerk,"  1873);  G.  C.  STEYNIS,  De  Verhouding  van  de 
Wetgeving  bij  Ezekiel  tot  die  in  den  Pentateuch  (1873);  GRAETZ,  "Die  Echtheit  des 
Buches  des  Propheten  Ezechiel,"  Monatsschrift  fur  Geschichte  und  Wissenschaft  des 
Judenthums,  Vol.  XXIII  (1874),  pp.  433-46,  515-25  ;  KAYSER,  Das  vorexilische  Buch 
der  Urgeschichte  Israels  und  seine  Erweiterungen  (1874),  pp.  176  ff.;  DUHM,  Theologie 
der  Propheten  (1875),  PP-  208-11,  216  £.,252-63;  N6LDEKE,/a/4r<5«VA<rr  fur  protes- 
tantische  Theologie,  1875,  PP-  355  &;  KLOSTERMANN,  "Ezechiel,  ein  Beitrag  zur 
bessern  Wurdigung  seiner  Person  und  seiner  Schrift,"  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiktn,  1877,  pp.  391-439;  KLOSTERMANN,  "Hat  Ezechiel  die  in  Lev.  18-26  am 
deutlichsten  erkennbare  Gesetzessammlung  verfasst  ?"  Zeitschrift  fur  Lutherische 
Theologie,  1877,  pp.  406-45  (reprinted  in  Der  Pentateuch,  1893,  pp.  368  ff.);  SMEND, 
Der  Prophet  Ezechiel  ("  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch  zum  A.  T.,"  1880); 
HORST,  Lev,  17-26  und  Hezekiel  (\%%i);  E.  KiJHN,  "Ezechiel's  Gesicht  vom  Tempel 
der  Vollendungszeit,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  Vol.  LV  (1882),  pp.  601- 
88;  CORNILL,  Der  Prophet  Ezechiel  geschildert  ( 1882);  MAYBAUM,  Die  Entwickelung 
des  altisraelitischen  Prophetenthums  (1883),  pp.  38-60  ;  P.  WURSTER,  "  Zur  Charakter- 
istik  und  Geschichte  des  Priestercodex  und  Heiligkeitsgesetzes,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die 
alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IV  (1884),  pp.  122  f.;  SEINECKE,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1884),  pp.  1-20;  DILLMANN,  Die  Biicher  Numeri  Deutero- 
nomium  und  Joshua  (2d  ed.  1886),  pp.  644  ff.;  CORNILL,  Das  Buch  des  Prophet 
Ezec hiel(i 886) ;  ARNDT,  Die  Stellung  Ezechiels in  der  alttestamentlichen  Prophetic  ( 1 886); 
VALETON,  Viertal  Voorlez.  over  Prophet,  des  Ouden  Verbonds (1886);  STADE,  Geschichte 


LEGAL    LITERATURE EZEKIEL's    CONTRIBUTION  179 

des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1888),  pp.  1-63;  ORELLI,  Ezekiel  ("  Kurzgefasster  Com- 
mentar,"  1888,  ad  ed.  1896);  H.  MEULENBELT,  De  Prediking  van  den  Profeet  Ezechiel 
(1888);  PERROT  ET  CHIPIEZ,  Le  temple  de  Jerusalem  et  la  maison  du  Bois-Liban 
restituls  d'apres  Ezekiel  et  le  livre  des  Rois  (1889);  RlEHM,  Einleitung  in  das  alte 
Testament ( 1 889-90),  Vol.  II,  pp.  1 1 1-26;  KNABENBAUER,  Commentarius  in  Ezek.  ( 1 890) ; 
L.  GAUTIER,  La  mission  du  prophete  Ezekiel  (1891);  BAENTZSCH,  Das  Heiligkeitsgesetz 
(1893), pp.  121  ff.;  DIESTEL,  article  "Hesekiel,"  R.ve.lwfsHand'worterbuchdesbiblischen 
Alterthums,  Vol.  I  (2d  ed.,  1893);  GAUPP,  "Die  Eigentiimlichkeit  des  Ezekiel," 
Neue  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  Vol.  V  (1894),  pp.  613  ff.;  KAMRATH,  "Der  messianische 
Theil  des  ezech.  Proph.,  besonders  in  seinen  Verhaltnissen  zum  Hexateuch,"./aAr- 
bucher  fur  protestantische  Theologie,  Vol.  XVII  (1891),  pp.  585  ff.;  CORNILL,  Einlei- 
tung in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891),  pp.  77  f.,  168-70;  WILDEBOER,  Die  Litteratur  des 
Alten  Testaments  (1893,  transl.  1895),  pp.  245-57;  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament  (1893),  pp.  354-60;  D.  H.  MULLER,  Ezechiel-Studien  (1895);  BERTHOLET, 
Die  Verfassungsent-wurf  des  Hesechiel  (1896);  BERTHOLET,  Das  Buck  Hesekiel 
erkldrt  ("  Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1897);  DUSSAUD,  "Les 
visions  d'Eze'kiel,"  Revue  de  rhistoire  des  religions,  Vol.  XIX  (1898),  pp.  301  ff.; 
ORELLI,  article  "Ezechiel,"  Realencyklopddie  fur  Protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche, 
Vol.  V  (3d  ed.,  1898);  KRAETZSCHMAR,  Das  Buck  Ezechiel  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt 
("  Hand-Kommentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1900);  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die 
Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes  (1901),  pp.  igoff.,  453-71;  SCHMALZL,  Ezechiel  erkldrt 
("Kurzgefasster  wissenschaftl.  Commentar,"  1901). 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  LEGAL  LITERATURE THE  PRIESTLY  CODE. 

§  190.  The  Story  of  the  Adoption  of  the  Law  in  Ezra's 

Times  (§§40-44)-' 

i.  Consider  the  conditions  of  the  times  in  which  this 
Bzra7:i,7-9;        event  occurred  :  (i)  the  date  of  the  event  •'  (2)  the  char- 

8:  31. 

Neh.7:73;  9:1.  acter  of  Ezra  and  his  constituency;  (3)  the  duration  of 
t. 21  ft. -,9:5 ft.  Ezra's  journey,  March  to  August ;  (4)  the  gifts  and  let- 
8:04-30.  ters ;  (5)  the  work  of  Nehemiah  (§40);  (6)  the  work  of 

Ezra  (§41)- 

Neh.,  chaps.  8-10.          2.  Study  the  account  of  the  formal  adoption,  includ- 
ing (i)  the  place  of  the  assembly;  (2)  the  duration  of  the 
Neh.  8:3.  reading;  (3)  the  circumstances  attending  the  reading; 

Neh. 8:8.  (4)  the  reception  given  the  law  by  the  people;  (5)  the 

Neh.8:g.  method    of   interpretation;    (6)   the    occasion    of   their 

Neh.8:i3«.          weeping;  (7)  the  reading  on  the  second  day  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Feast  of  Booths,  and  the  compliance  of  the 
Neh. 9: 39 510:29-  people  ;  (8)  the  various  things  which  they  covenanted  to 
Neh!  10:37-39.       do  (§43);  (9)  the  fact  that  the  priests  are  clearly  distin- 
guished from  the  Levites  (§§  43,  68). 

3  Kings aa:  i—  3.  Compare  the  general  circumstances  of  the  accept- 

ance of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  (§25)  with  those  of 
the  acceptance  of  this  book,  noting  points  of  similarity 
and  difference,  e.  g.,  (i)  the  national  assembly;  (2)  the 
celebration  of  a  feast,  in  one  case  the  Passover,  in  the  other 

1  Ezra's  work  is  probably  to  be  placed  after  that  of  Nehemiah  ;  for  the  arguments 
in  support  of  this  position  see  KOSTERS,  Het  Herstel  van  Israel (1894  >  transl.  into  Ger- 
man, 1895);  KENT,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian,  and 
Greek  Periods,  pp.  196  ff.;  CHEYNE,  Jewish  Religions  Life  after  the  Exile,  pp.  36-81 ; 
C.  C.  TORREY,  The  Composition  and  Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  pp.  51-65; 
GUTHE,  art.  "  Israel  "  (§§  55  ff.),  Encyc.Biblica;  A.  VAN  HOONACKER,  Nouvelles  etudes 
sur  la  restauration  juive  apres  I' exile  de  Babylone  (1896). 

aThe  arrival  of  Ezra  at  Jerusalem  is  placed  shortly  after  433  B.  C.  by  KOSTERS  and 
CHEYNE,  Encyc.  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  col.  1487,  and  others.  PROFESSOR  VAN  HOONACKER, 
however,  places  it  in  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes  II.,  viz.,  398-7;  while  KUENEN, 
Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  zur  biblischen  Wissenschaft  (1894),  ED.  MEYER,  Die  Ent- 
stehung  des  Judenthums  (1896),  and  others  retain  the  date  458  B.  C. 

1 80 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE  l8l 

the  Feast  of  Booths,  in  a  manner  different  from  that  in 
which   they  had   previously  been  observed    in    Canaan. 

4.  Consider,  now,  whether  the  law  adopted  thus  by 
the  people  in  Ezra's  time  was  (i)  the  entire  Hexateuch 
as  we  now  possess   it;    or  (2)  the   so-called    Holiness 
Code,   that   is,    Lev.,   chaps.    17-26;  or  (3)   the  whole 
Levitical  code  known  as  P  (§  43).3 

5.  Consider  why,  if  Ezra  brought  the  law  with  him 

in  458  B.  C.,  he  took  no  steps  to  make  it  known  to  the  Ezra 7:14- 
people  until  twelve  years  later,  after  Nehemiah  had  come 
(446  or  445  B.  C.).     Is  it  enough  to  answer  that  this  was 
delayed    by  (i)  the  troublous    character  of   the   times  Ezra  10:7. 
which  followed  the  expulsion  of  the  foreign  wives ;  (2) 
the  necessity  of  Ezra's  taking  time  to  acquaint  himself 
with  the  conditions  of  the  country  and  the  adjustment 
of  the  details  of  the  law  to  those  conditions  ;  (3)  the 
need   of   such  a  character  as  Nehemiah   to  arouse  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  people  ? 

§  191.  Representations  in  P  Concerning  its  Authorship 
(cf.  closely  §  171). 

i.  Read  and  compare  some  of  the  various  passages 
in  P  which  refer  to  its  authorship,  noting  particularly 
the   phraseology  employed,    e.  g.,  (i)  "And    Jehovah  Bxod.  25:1. 
spake  unto  Moses,  saying;"  (2)   "And  he  gave  unto  Bxod.  31:18. 
Moses  the  two  tables  of  the  testimony,  tables  of  stone, 
written    with   the   finger   of   God;"    (3)    "And    Moses  Exod. 35:1,4. 
assembled  all  the  congregation  of  the  children  of  Israel, 
and  said  unto  them  ;"  (4)  "And  it  came  to  pass  on  the  Lev.  9:1. 
eighth  day,  that  Moses  called  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and 
the  elders  of  Israel ;  and  he  said  unto  Aaron  ; "  (5)  "And  Lev.  io:9,  ia. 
Jehovah  spake  unto  Aaron,  saying;"  (6)  "And  Jehovah  Lev.  u:x;  14:33; 
spake  unto  Moses  and  to  Aaron,  saying;"  (7)  "These  LeV.' 26:46;  cf. 
are  the  statutes  and  ordinances  and  laws,  which  Jehovah 
made  between  him  and  the  children  of  Israel  in  Mount 
Sinai  by  Moses." 

3  This  point  may  well  be  omitted,  except  by  those  who  desire  to  go  into  the  criti- 
cal questions  involved ;  see  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFOHD-BATTERSBY,  The 
Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  138  ff.;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  §57; 
STEUERNAGEL,  Deuteronomium  und  Josua  ("  Handkommentar  z.  A.  T."),  pp.  277  ff.; 
WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  405  ff.;  the  articles  on  the 
Hexateuch  in  the  various  Bible  dictionaries  ;  and  the  discussions  in  the  many  intro- 
ductions to  the  Old  Testament. 


182 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Numb.  33:1. 


2.  Read  the  interesting  passage  in  which  writing  is 
ascribed  to  Moses,  and  consider  whether  the  contents  are 
consistent  with  an  assignment  to  the  times  of  Moses. 

3.  Take  up  now,  one  by  one,  the  suggestions  which 
have  been  offered  in  explanation  of  a  non-Mosaic  author- 
ship, as  indicated  in  §  171  under  2,  3,  4,  5. 

§  192.  Point  of  View  and  Coloring  of  the  Priestly  Code 


1.  Consider,  as  bearing  upon  the  Mosaic  origin,  (i) 
the  representation  concerning  the  plains  of  Moab  as  the 
scene  of  certain  legislation  concerning  Levitical  cities; 
(2)  the  situation  at  Sinai  as  the  scene  of  certain  events 
and  legislation  ;  (3)  the  situation  in  Egypt  as  the  place 
of  the  initiation  of  the  Passover  ;  (4)  the  exact  statement 
of  the  date  of  departure  from  Sinai  ;  (5)  the  date  of  the 
ordinances  of  the  tabernacle  and  of  its  erection,  together 
with  the  statement  that  it  accompanied  Israel  through 
a^  tne  wanderings  5  (6)  the  fact  that  it  looks  forward  to 
entrance  into  Canaan,  and  introduces  legislation  appli- 
ca^'e  only  to  settled  life  in  Canaan;   (7)  the  warnings 
uttered    against    practices   of    Egypt   which    they   had 
known  and  practices  of  Canaan  which  they  are  to  know; 
(8)  the  allusions  to  Egypt  and  Jehovah's  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  bondage  there;  (9)  the  absence  of  any  men- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple. 

2.  Consider,  as  bearing  further  upon  this  question, 
(i)   the  regulations   against    Molech  worship;    (2)  the 
agricultural  character  of  the  feasts  ;   (3)  the  experiences 
of  the  exile  as  depicted  in  Lev.,  chap.  26  ;  (4)  the  phrase 
"beyond  the  Jordan,"  used  of  the  east  side  of  Jordan; 

(5)  the  constant  reference  to  Moses  in  the  third  person  ; 

(6)  the  apparent  distance  of  Moses  and  Aaron  in  the 
narrative  Exod.  6  :  26  f.,  and  of  the  eating  of  manna  in  the 
description  of  the  same  ;  (7)  passages  in  which  Israel  seems 
to  be  represented  as  in  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
(8)  the  significance  of  the  great  periods  passed  over  in 
silence  (is  it  not  against  the  supposition  that  the  author 
was  a  contemporary?),  e.  g.,  (a)  between  Exod.  i  :  5-7  and 
1:13,  a  period  of  two  or  four  hundred  years  ;4  (b)  between 

4  For  an  analysis  of  the  text  here  see  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD- 
BATTERSBY.  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  80  f.,  or  the  commentaries  of  Dillmann  and 
Baentsch.  On  the  historical  events  see  the  histories  of  Kittel,  Stade,  Wellhausen,  Kent. 


Numb.  35:  i ; 
36:13. 

Numb,  i  :i ;  3:14 
9:5;  Bzod. 
24 : 18—35 :  '  • 

Bzod.  12:1. 

Numb.  10:11. 

Bzod.  29 : 46. 
Bzod.,  chaps. 
25  «.,  35-40. 
Bzod.  40:17-38. 


LT'-a4:-3ifumb3; 
15  -a  t  18:33:51; 


Lev.  19  =  34,  36; 
55:2,54; 
numb.  8:17; 
14:2. 

Lev.  20:1-5. 

Lev.,  chap.  23; 
Numb.,  chaps. 
28,  29. 

Numb.  34:15' 


Lev.  7:28;  8:1; 
9:1,  sf.;  23:1 


Ezod.  1 6  : 55. 

Lev.  18:24  ff. 
20:23. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE  183 

Numb.  20  :  i  and  20  :  22&,  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years 
(cf.  10:11  and  33:37);*  (f)  the  representation  that  Dan's  Kumb.i-.aS; 
descendants  in  the  fourth  generation  numbered  62,700. 
§  193.  The  Language  and  Style  of  the  Priestly  Code. 

1.  Examine  a  list  of  special  words  and  phrases  fre- 
quently occurring  in  this  code,6  and  consider  (i)  the 
bearing  of  the  fact  of  such  a  list  upon  the  question  of 
authorship ;    does  it  argue   for   or   against   identity  of 
authorship   with   the  other   books  of   the    Hexateuch  ? 
(2)  the  general  character  of  these  expressions  as  indi- 
cating early  or  late  authorship.     Note  especially  that  the  Bxod.  40:3, 17; 
months  are  numbered  rather  than  named,  and  that  the      chap.  23.   ' 
New  Year  comes  in    the   spring,  not  in    the  autumn. 

When  did  this  method  of  enumeration  prevail  ? 

2.  Examine   a   list   of    the    linguistic    peculiarities 
appearing  in  the  book,  /.  e.,  peculiar  forms,  idioms,  etc.,   c/.,  e.  g.,  L«T. 

i8:a£  with 

and  consider  whether  these  exhibit  evidence  of  antiquity      Ezek.  80:5,7, 

.-,  ,       »9;  Lev.  18:35 
of  date,  or  of  late  date.     With  what  writer  in  the  Old      with  Ezek. 

42 : 20* 

Testament  does  the  Priestly  Code  show  the  largest  num- 
ber of  similarities  ? 

3.  Consider  (i)  the  general  style  of  the  Priestly  Code, 
viz.,  stereotyped,  repetitious,  statistical,  rigid,  prosaic, 
precise,  systematic;  (2)  the  striking  points  of  style  which 
distinguish  this  code  from  other  portions  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch and,  indeed,  from  other  Old  Testament  writings, 
viz.,  (a)  legal,  (b)  imperative,  (<:)  idealistic.7 

§  194.  The  Material  of  the  Priestly  Code  as  Bearing  on 
the  Date  and  Authorship. 

i.  Examine  the  great  number  of  repetitions  of  laws 
found  in  other  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  and  within  P 
itself  (e.  g.,  Exod.,  chaps.  25-28  and  35-40  ;  Lev.  3  :  5- 

s  See  CARPENTER  AND  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  p.  28. 

6 Extensive  lists  of  the  various  linguistic  phenomena  of  the  Priestly  Code  are  to 
be  found  in  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  208-21;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  §§43,  44,  51,58;  ADDIS, 
Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  170-73;  BRIGGS,  Higher  Criticism  of  the 
Hexateuch,  pp.  172-80;  RYSSEL,  De  Elohistae  Pentateuchi  Sermone  (1878);  GIESE- 
BRECHT,  "  Der  Sprachgebrauch  des  hexateuchischen  Elohisten,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die 
alttestamentliche  Wissenchaft,  Vol.  I  (1881),  pp.  177-276 ;  DRIVER,  Journal  of  Philology, 
Vol.  XI,  pp.  201-36. 

7  On  literary  style  of  P  see  the  articles  by  W.  R.  HARPER  in  Hebraica,  Vols.  V,  VI. 


1 84  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

4:35  and  chap.  18;  19:3^,  30  and  26:2;  19:  9  and 
23:22;  19:260  and  17:10-14;  24:21  and  24:17; 
18  :  6-23  and  20  : 10-21 ;  Lev.,  chap.  8;  Exod.  30  :  i — 
31  :ii,  and  Numb.,  chap.  8),  and  consider  (i)  how  these 
repetitions  may  be  accounted  for  upon  the  supposition 
that  all  portions  of  the  Hexateuch  had  their  origin 
within  one  man's  lifetime  and  as  one  man's  work  ;  (2) 
how  these  repetitions  may  be  explained  upon  the  suppo- 
sition of  three  or  more  distinct  codes  of  law,  which 
originated  as  codifications  of  teachings  and  usages  that 
had  grown  up  through  many  centuries. 

2.  Examine  passages  which  seem  to  furnish  instances 
of  discrepancy  and  variation  between  P  and  other  legisla- 
tion (e.  g.,  the  differences  in  the  lists  of  "clean  and 
unclean"  as  given  in  Lev.,  chap.  1 1,  and  Deut.,  chap.  14  ; 
the  variations  in  the  details  of  the  structure  of  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  as  described  in  Exod.  25:10;  37:1;  40:20, 
and   Deut.,  chap.  9;   10:1,  3,  5;    the  representation  of 
the  tabernacle  as  located  within  the  camp  in    Exod., 
chaps.  25-29,  but   without    the    camp  in  Exod.  33  :  7  ; 
Numb.  11:24-30;  12:4;   *o:33 —  all  E  passages;  the 
law  of  the  altar  as  given  in  Exod.  20  :  24  (E)  and  the 
totally  different  altar  provided  for  in  Exod.,  chaps.  25- 
29  ;  the  law  of  slaves,  Lev.  25  :  39-42,  cf.  Exod.  21 : 1-6 
(E)  and   Deut.  15:12;  the  regulations  concerning  the 
priest  as  found   in   Deuteronomy  and   in  the   Priestly 
Code  —  see  §§62,  63,  and  68,  69),  and  consider  (i)  how 
these  discrepancies  may  be  accounted  for  upon  the  sup- 
position that  all  portions  of  the    Hexateuch  had  their 
origin  within  one  man's  lifetime  and  as  one  man's  work  ; 
(2)  how  they  may  be  explained  upon  the  supposition  of 
three  or  more  distinct  codes  of  law,  which  originated  as 
codifications  of  teachings  and  usages  that  had  grown  up 
through  many  centuries. 

3.  Examine  the  narratives  relating  to  the  tabernacle, 
.,  chaps.        viz.,  (a)  the  directions  for  its  erection  and  decoration  ; 

25—30. 

.,  chaps.  (fy  tne  record  of  its  erection  and  decoration  ;  and  in  the 
study  of  these  narratives  consider  the  following  ques- 
tions:  (i)  are  the  representations  concerning  the  taber- 
nacle in  the  wilderness  consistent  with  each  other?8 

8  See  CARPENTER  AND  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  52,  129. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE  185 

(2)  What  is  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  the  first  state-  Exod.  33:7- 
ment  made  represents  the  tent  as  in  actual  use  before  it 
was  constructed  ?9  (3)  What  are  the  various  names  by 
which  the  tent  is  designated  in  the  several  docu- 
ments ? 10  (4)  To  what  extent  do  the  various  codes 
describe  a  different  service  in  connection  with  it?"  (5) 
Is  it  possible  to  understand  this  representation  as  an 
ideal  one,  and  as  corresponding  to  the  prophetic  pic- 
tures of  the  future  ? 

§  195.  Structure  and  Contents  of  the  Priestly  Code. 

T.  Consider  the  extent  to  which  the  P  history  and 
legislation  constitute  the  basis  on  which  the  entire 
Hexateuch  rests,  or  the  framework  into  which  the  rest  of 
the  material  is  fitted. 

2.  Compare-  the  relation  of  the  P  legislation  to  the 
P  history  with  that  of  the  Deuteronomic  legislation  to 
the  Deuteronomic  historical  setting. 

3.  Consider  (i)  whether  there  are  not  to  be  found  1^.7:371.; 

11:46  f.;  13:59; 
formulae  which  mark  the  end  of  small  codes  and,  conse-      16:34; etc. 

quently,  (2)  whether  the  P  legislation  is  not  made  up  of 
several  separate  collections  of  laws,  e.  g. :  (a)  Lev.,  chaps. 
17-26;  (b)  Lev.,  chaps.  1-7;  (c)  Exod.,  chaps.  25-28; 
(d)  Exod.,  chaps.  35-40;  (e)  Lev.,  chap,  n  ;  (/)  Lev., 
chaps.  13,  14;  (g)  Lev.,  chap.  15;  (h)  Numb.,  chaps. 
28-36. 

4.  Examine  the  contents  and  character    of    P*,  so 
called  because  it  forms  the  historical  groundwork  of  the 
entire  P  legislation,  considering  (i)  its  central  theme, 
viz.,  Jehovah's  purpose  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
develop  and  train  Israel  as  his  peculiar  people,  and  the 
means  and  institutions  employed  by  him  to  accomplish 

this  purpose;    (2)  the  extent  of  the  ground  covered,  viz.,  Gen. in;  josh., 
from  the  creation  to  the  establishment  of  the  nation  ; 

9  The  account  of  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  is  given  by  P  (=  Exod., 
chaps.  35-40)  as  having  taken  place  after  the  arrival  at  Sinai ;  while  E  in  Exod.  33  : 7 
speaks  of  "  the  tent  of  meeting  "  as  a  familiar  institution  of  the  camp. 

10 See  Exod.  33:7  (E);  Exod.  25  : 8  (P);  Exod.  25  :g  (P) ;  Numb.  II  -.246  (E); 
9:15  (P);  Exod.  39:32  (P);  35:  II  (P);  the  name  does  not  occur  in  J  or  Deuter- 
onomy. 

"  See  CARPENTER  AND  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  op.  cit.,  Vol.1,  p.  55. 


186  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

9en.a:4;5:i;       (3)  the  logical   presentation,  viz.,  (a)  the   toledhoth  sec- 

10: x*  25: 19 ; 

etc.  tions  leading  up  to  the  Sinaitic  revelation  ;  (b*)  the  work 

Gen.,  chap.  17.       °^  Moses  in  the  deliverance  from  Egypt ;  (c)  the  special 

josh.,  chaps.  14  ff.  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  Israel ;  (d)  the  settlement 

of  Abraham's  descendants  in  Palestine;  (4)  the  character 

of  all  this  as  compared  with  the  similar  narrative   of  J, 

especially  the  differences  which  characterize  it,  such  as 

the  emphasis  placed  upon  religious  institutions,  the  lack 

of  the  personal  element." 

5.  Consider  now  the  great  passage  which  stands  apart 
and  constitutes  Ph,  that  is,  the  Holiness  Code,  taking  up 
Lev.  26:3-45;  18:  (i)  certain  peculiar  exhortations,  which  are  intended  to 
2-4)  10,  12,  14,  emphasize  the  idea  of  holiness,  and  the  deity  of  Jehovah 
22^36 ;'aa : 31-33!  who  led  Israel  out  of  Egypt;  (2)  certain  laws  which  do 
not  seem  to  be  consistent  with  other  parts  of  P;  (3) 
other  peculiarities  of  the  form  and  contents ;  *3  (4)  the 
probability  of  the  independence  of  this  section,  and  in 
this  connection  (a)  the  question  as  to  the  origin  of  this 
material,  (£)  its  self-consistency,  (c)  the  amount  of  edi- 
torial work  which  has  been  connected  with  it;  (5)  other 
passages  which  seem  to  show  the  same  peculiarities ; u 
(6)  the  question  of  date,  distinguishing  (a)  the  regula- 
tions of  which  it  is  composed,  (b)  the  hortatory  frame- 
work, and  examining  in  detail  the  forms  of  the  various 
laws  with  reference  to  their  sociological  setting. 

Wumb.  5:5—  g.  Consider  in  the  same  general  manner  the  portions 

6:21;  etc. 

assigned  to  P*,  that  is,  priestly  teaching  (torafi),  which 
treat  especially  of  sacrifice,  clean  and  unclean,  and  simi- 
lar topics. >s 

etcT  7-  Consider,  likewise,  the  portions  assigned  to  P$,  that 

"  For  further  consideration  of  Pg  see  chap.  XV. 

*3£.  g.,  a  different  style  and  phraseology  (see  DRIVER,  Introduction,  pp.  49  ff.) ; 
a  parenetic  framework  unknown  to  other  parts  of  P ;  repetitions  of  laws  found  else- 
where in  P ;  commands  addressed  to  the  people,  not  to  the  priest  as  in  P. 

14  Scholars  differ  somewhat  as  to  the  limits  of  the  Holiness  Code  ;  e.  g.,  DRIVER 
(Introduction,  p.  151)  assigns  to  Ph:  Lev.,  chaps.  17-26 ;  Exod.  6  :  6-8  ;  12  : 12;  31 : 13- 
140;  Lev.  10:90,  10;  11:44;  Numb.  15:37-41;  ADDIS  (Documents  of  the  f/exateuch, 
Vol.  II,  p.  178):  Lev.,  chaps.  17-26 ;  n:  43-45  ;  Numb.  15  : 37-41;  CARPENTER  AND 
HARFORD-BATTERSBY  (op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  145):  Lev.,  chaps.  17-26;  Exod.  31: 13, 140; 
Numb.  10  :  9;  15  :  38^-41. 

*>  For  a  statement  of  the  limits  and  character  of  P*  see  CARPENTER  AND  HARFORD- 
BATTERSBY,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  I52f.;  and  for  a  similar  statement  concerning  P5  see 
the  same  work,  Vol.  I,  pp.  153-5. 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE 

is,  certain  secondary  expansions  along  many  lines,  tending 
toward  "  the  heightening  of  ritual  and  the  elaboration  of 
detail." 

§  196.  The  Relation  of  Ezek.,  Chaps.  40-48,  to  the 
Priestly  Code. — The  question  as  to  the  relation  of  the 
scheme  of  legislation  contained  in  Ezek.,  chaps.  40-48, 
to  that  of  the  Priestly  Code,  and  especially  the  Holiness 
Code,  is  one  of  especial  interest,  and  has  been  the 
occasion  of  much  discussion.  Nothing  more  can  be 
attempted  here  than  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  prob- 
lem and  the  various  lines  of  investigation. 

1.  Examine  lists16  of  the  phraseological  and  linguis- 
tic affinities  existing  between  P  and  Ezek.,  chaps.  40-48* 
and  consider  whether  they  are  to  be  accounted  for  on  the 
supposition  (i)  that  Ezekiel  was  especially  fond  of,  and 
thoroughly  familiar  with,  the  P  legislation,  and  drew  up 
his  scheme  on  the  basis  of  it ;  or  (2)  that  Ezek.,  chaps. 
40-48,  served  as  a  model  for  the  authors  of  P  and  was 
largely  drawn  upon  by  them ;  or  (3)  that  Ezekiel  was 
the  author  of  the  Holiness  Code ;    or    (4)  that  Ezek., 
chaps.  40-48,  and  the  earlier  parts  of  P  originated  at 
about  the  same  time,  were  both  influenced  largely  by  the 
earlier  existing  legislation,  and  were  both  actuated  by  a 
similar  spirit  and  motive. 

2.  Consider  from  the  same  point  of  view  the  similar 

regulations  found  in   Ezek.,  chaps.  40-48,   and  in   P;  Ezek. 44: 10-15 ;«/. 
,    \     ,,....  ,   T  Numb.,  chaps. 

e.  g.,  ( i )  the  distinction  between   priests  and  Levites ;     1-4. 

(2)  the  emphasis  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  ceremonial      Lev.,  chaps' x& 

"cleanness;"  (3)  the  close  similarity  of  the  laws  con-  Ezek. 44':  17-37; 
,  ,      ,       ,  cf.  Lev.  ax:  i— 

cernmg  the  priests;    (4)   the  large   ritualistic   element     aa:i6. 

i       t       /   \  Lev.  19:30;  ef. 

common  to  both ;  (5)  the  special  sanctity  of  the  sabbath ;      Ezek.  ao:  xa. 
(6)  the  predominance  in  both  of  the  religious  element, 

almost  to  the  exclusion  of  secular  matters;  (7)  the  great  Ezek. 40: 5— 43:13; 

,       .,.-,,,,  t/.Bxod.,  chaps. 

emphasis  laid  by  both  upon  the  sanctuary.  35-29  and  35-40. 

3.  Consider,  further,  the  points  of  difference  between 

the  two  schemes  of  legislation,  e.g.,  (i)  in  P  the  priests  Ezek.  44:15;  cf. 
are  sons  of  Aaron,  in  Ezekiel  sons  of  Zadok ;   (2)  the  Ley.  aino.' 
high-priest  occupies  a  large  place  in  P,  but  is  not  men- 
tioned in   Ezekiel;  (3)  the  function  of  "the  prince"  is  Ezek. 46:3 fl. 

16  See,  e.  g.,  DRIVER,  Introduction,  pp.   130-35,   145-9;    SMEN&,  Der  Prophet 
Ezechiel (i%%o),  pp.  xxv-xxviii. 


1 88  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

i^.  chap.  i6;<r/:  peculiar  to  Ezekiel  ;  (4)  the  legislation  for  the  Day  of 

Bzek., chaps. 45,    Atonement  is  unknown  to  Ezekiel;  (5)  the  assignment 

35:1-8;  Josh,      of  property  to  the  priests  is  radically  different,  the  scheme 

Bzek. 45:21-45;     of  Ezekiel  having  no  parallel  in  this  respect;  (6)  the 
ef.  Lev.,  chap. 
23;  Numb.,        legislation  concerning  feasts  differs  in  many  details ;  (7) 

Lev ,  ch'ap/25 ;       Ezekiel  knows  nothing  of  a  sabbatical  year,  or  Year  of 

36 : 34  t . ;  27 : 17-  * 

24;  cf. Bzek.  Jubilee,  upon  which  P  lays  great  emphasis;  (8)  in  gen- 
eral, the  legislation  of  P  is  much  more  detailed  and 
elaborate  than  that  of  Ezekiel.  What  is  the  bearing  of 
these  and  other  differences  upon  the  answer  to  the  ques- 
tions suggested  above  ? 

§  197.  The  Principal  Ideas  of  the  Priestly  Code. 

1.  Consider  that,  for  the  most  part,  the  Priestly  Code 
is  not  didactic,  as  is  Deuteronomy,  but  is  rather  a  manual 
of   religious  customs  and   practices.      To  what  extent, 
however,  does  it  give   concrete  expression   to   certain 
great  conceptions  which  lay  at  the  basis  of  all  its  regula- 
tions, and  were  deeply  impressed  upon   the  minds  and 
hearts  of  the  worshipers    as   they    participated    in    the 
ceremonies  prescribed  by  it  ? 

2.  For  a  general  statement  concerning  the  ideas  of 
P,  see  §  49.     For  the  P  material  on  the  priest,  see  §§  68, 
69  ;  on  the  place  of  worship,  see  §§  79,  "So ;  on  sacrifice, 
see  §§  91,  92  ;  on  feasts,  see  §§  103, 104  ;  on  the  sabbath, 
see  §§  117,  118;  on  clean  and  unclean,  see  §§  131,  132. 

3.  In   an  effort  to  discover  the  chief  ideas   of  the 
Priestly  Code  consideration  must  be  paid,  not  only  to 
specific  statements  that  may  be  found  in  the  text,  but 
also  to  the  general  tone  and  character  of  the  material  as 
a  whole  and  to  the  amount  of  attention   given  to  the 
various  features  of  the  system  of  worship:  (i)  The  idea 
of  God  here  reaches  the  highest  plane  attained  in  the 

^i'od^'-ie'f      ^^  Testament.     He  is  a  Being  so  great,  so  holy,  so 
Lev.,  chaps.  21,     awful,  that  access  to  him  is  permitted  only  under  the 
most  stringent  conditions  and  always  through  the  media- 
tion of  a  specially  consecrated  priest ;  into  his  inmost 
presence  only  one  man  in  the  entire  nation,  viz.,  the 
holiest  man — the  high-priest — may  come,  and  that  but 
Lev.  4:1—6:7;      once  a  year.     (2)  In  the  light  of  this  unapproachable 
holiness,  the  blackness  of  sin  is  immeasurably  intensified  ; 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE  189 

he  cannot  look  upon  sin  witn  the  least  degree  of  allow- 
ance; his  holiness,  pervading  everything,  is  in  constant 
danger  of  violation ;  hence  the  possibilities  of  sin  are 
greatly  multiplied.  Sin  was  the  cause  of  all  of  Israel's  Lev. 86:3-45. 
calamities  in  the  past ;  hence,  in  order  to  insure  Jehovah's 
favor  and  blessing  for  the  future,  every  precaution  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  sin,  and  to  make  propitiation  to  him 
when  sin  is  unavoidable  or  for  any  reason  has  been  com- 
mitted. (V)  The  holy  God  demands  a  correspondingly  L»v.ix:44*.; 

0  •*      19:2;  30:7,26; 
holy  people  who  shall  honor  him  with  a  holy  worship.      21:71.;  aa:  33. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  P  legislation  to  secure  this  end. 
This  explains  the  great  emphasis  laid  upon  (4)  ritual  Lev.,  chaps.  8, 
and  ceremony.  Everything  is  carefully  prescribed  and 
intrusted  to  the  execution  of  the  priests  whose  especial 
function  it  is  to  guide  and  lead  the  people  in  the  pres- 
entation of  an  acceptable  worship  unto  Jehovah.  (5) 
Religion  has  become  the  great  business  of  life ;  it  has 
stepped  in  and  occupied  the  place  formerly  held  by 
national  politics  and  ambitions.  (6)  The  exalted  con- 
ception of  Jehovah  and  the  necessity  of  constant  propi-  Lev.,  chap.  23. 
tiatory  rites  have  completely  done  away  with  the  joyous 
abandon  of  the  worship  of  early  days,  and  the  spirit  of 
confidence  and  fellowship  has  been  largely  replaced  by 
that  of  reverence  and  godly  fear. 

§  198.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

COLENSO,  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined  (3  parts; 
1862-69);  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel  (1878,  5th  ed.  1897; 
transl.  from  German  1885),  pp.  374-91,  404-10;  DRIVER,  Journal  of  Philology,  Vol. 
XI  (1882),  pp.  201-36;  KUENEN,  An  Historico-  Critical  Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the 
Hexateuch  (1885,  transl.  1886);  BISSELL,  The  Pentateuch,  Its  Origin  and  Structure: 
An  Examination  of  Recent  Theories  (1885);  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews  (1888, 
transl.  1895),  Vol.  I,  pp.  96-132;  W.  R.  HARPER  and  W.  H.  GREEN,  Hebraica,  Vols. 
V-VIII  (1888-91);  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (1889,  2d 
ed.  1892);  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891,  6th  ed. 
i897),  PP-  42~59i  126-59;  BRIGGS,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  (1892,  2d 
ed.  1897),  pp.  108  f.,  172-80,  233  ff.;  PATON,  "The  Relation  of  Lev.  XX  to  Lev. 
XVII-XIX,"  Hebraica,  Vol.  X  (1893),  pp.  IH-2I;  B.  W.  BACON,  The  Triple  Tradi- 
tion of  the  Exodus  (1894);  DRIVER  AND  WHITE,  Leviticus  ("Sacred  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments;"  Hebrew  text  1894,  English  transl.  1898);  W.  H.  GREEN, 
The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  (1895);  PATON,  "The  Holiness  Code  and 
Ezekiel,"  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Review,  1896,  pp.  98-115;  KONIG,  Expositor, 
August,  1896,  p.  97;  PATON,  "The  Original  Form  of  Lev.  17-19," Journal  of Biblical 


1 9O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT   IN   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Literature,  1897,  pp.  31-7;  ADDIS,  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp. 
170-91;  F.  H.  WOODS,  art.  "Hexateuch,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol. 
II  (1899),  pp.  368-71 ;  PATON,  "The  Original  Form  of  Leviticus,  Chaps.  21  and  22," 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XVII  (1899),  pp.  149-75;  IDEM,  "The  Original 
Form  of  Leviticus,  Chaps.  23,  25,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XVIII  (1899),  pp.  35-60;  J.  E.  CAR- 
PENTER AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch  (1900),  Vol.  I,  pp.  121-57; 
WELLHAUSEN,  art.  "  Hexateuch,"  §§  29  f.,  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901); 
H.  G.  MITCHELL,  The  World  before  Abraham  (1901),  pp.  17  ff.,  29  ff.,  58  ff.;  KENT 
AND  SANDERS,  "  The  Growth  of  Israelitish  Law,"  in  Biblical  and  Semitic  Studies  by  the 
Members  of  the  Semitic  and  Biblical  Faculty  of  Yale  University  (1901),  pp.  41-90; 
G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Leviticus,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  Ill  (1902);  G.  B.  GRAY, 
art.  "  Law  Literature,"  ibid. 

E.  BERTHEAU,  Die  sieben  Gruppen  mosaischer  Gesetze  in  den  drei  mittleren  Biichern 
des  Pentateuchs  (1840);  J.  POPPER,  Der  biblische  Bericht  uber  die  Stiftshutte  (1862); 
MERX,  "Kritische  Untersuchungen  liber  die  Opfergesetze,  Lev.  I-VII,"  Zeitschrift  fur 
wissenschaftliche  Theologie,  Vol.  VI  (1863),  pp.  41-84,  164-81;  GRAF,  Die  geschicht- 
lichen  Bucher  des  Alien  Testaments  (1866);  STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol. 
I  (1887),  pp.  62  ff.;  NOLDEKE,  Die  alttestamentliche  Literatur  (1868);  NOLDEKE, 
Untersuchungen  zur  Kritik  des  Alien  Testaments  (1869),  pp.  1-144;  KUENEN,  "De 
priesterlike  Bestanddeelen  van  Pentateuch  en  Josua,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  VoL 
IV  (1870),  pp.  391-426,  492-500;  KAYSER,  Das  vorexilische  Buck  der  Urgeschichtt 
Israels  und  seine  Erweiterungen  (1874);  HOFMANN,  "Einheit  und  Integritat  der 
Opfergesetze  Lev.  1-7,"  Magazin  fur  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthums,  1877  ;  KLOSTER- 
MANN,  "  Ezechiel  und  das  Heiligkeits-Gesetz,"  Zeitschrift  fur  luth.  Theologie  und 
Kirche,  1877,  pp.  406-44  (republished  in  Der  Pentateuch,  1893,  pp.  368-418);  BLEEK- 
WELLHAUSEN,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1878);  VON  RYSSEL,  De  Elohistae 
Pentateuchi Sermone(l8"j8) ;  MAYBAUM,  Die  Entwickelung  des altisraelitischen  Priester- 
thums  (1880),  pp.  74  ff.;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  Zeitschrift  fur  kirchliche  Wissenschaft 
undkirchlichesLeben,Vo\.I(itti),  pp.  617-26;  HORST,  Leviticus  XVII-XXVI und 
Hezekiel(\^>\);  GiESEBRECHT,  "  Der  Sprachgebrauch  des  hexateuchischen  Elohisten," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  I  (1881),  pp.  177-276;  P.  WUR- 
STER,  "  Zur  Charakteristik  und  Geschichte  des  Priestercodex  und  Heiligkeitsgesetz," 
ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1884),  pp.  112-33;  DILLMANN,  Die  Bucher  Numeri,  Deuteronomium 
und  Josua  ("  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch  zum  Alien  Testament,"  2d  ed. 
1886),  pp.  593-690;  WELLHAUSEN,  Die  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  und  der  histori- 
schen  Bucher  des  Alten  Testaments  (1889,  3d  ed.  1899);  WESTPHAL,  Les  sources  du 
Penta(fuyue(iSS8,  1892);  RIEHM,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1889);  STEINTHAL, 
Zeilschrift  fur  Volker-Psychologie,  Vol.  XX  (1890),  pp.  54  ff.;  CORNILL,  Einleitung  in 
das  Alte  Testament  (1891,  3d  ed.  1896),  pp.  56-86;  KONIG,  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1893,  PP-  464-8,  478;  WILDEBOER,  De  Letterkunde  des  Ouden  Verbonds  naar 
de  Tijdsorde  van  haar  Ontstaan  (1893,  German  transl.  1895),  §20;  HOLZINGER, 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893),  pp.  332-475;  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament  (1893),  §48;  BAENTSCH,  Das  Heiligkeits-Gesetz  (1893);  MEYER,  Die 
Entstehung  des  Judenthums  (1896),  pp.  208-15  ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Die  Composition  des 
Hexateuchs  und  der  historischen  Bucher  des  Alten  Testaments  (3d  ed.  1899);  GUTHE, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1899),  pp.  259  f.;  STEUERNAGEL,  Uebersetzung  und 
Erkldrung  der  Bucher  Deuteronomium  und  Josua  und  allgemeine  Einleitung  in  den 
Hexateuch  ("  Handkommentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1900),  pp.  271-8;  HALEVY, 


LEGAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    CODE 

"Influence  du  code  sacerdotal  sur  les  prophetes,"  Revue  slmitique,  January,  1901; 
BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Sucker  des  Alien  Testamentes  (1901),  §§  31,  41-4,  50-55. 
See  also  the  commentaries  on  Exodus  by  DILLMANN  (1897),  HOLZINGER  (1900), 
BAENTSCH  (1900),  and  KENNEDY  ("The  Temple  Bible,"  1901);  and  on  Leviticus  by 
KALISCH  (1867),  KEIL  (2d  ed.  1870),  LANGE  (1874),  STRACK  (1894),  DILLMANN- 
RYSSEL  (1897),  BAENTSCH  (1900),  BERTHOLET  (1901),  and  PATERSON  ("The  Temple 
Bible,"  1901). 


PAET  FIFTH 


THE  LITERATURE  OF   WORSHIP -THE  HISTORICAL 
LITERATURE 

XV.     THE  PRIESTLY  NARRATIVE  IN  THE  HEXATEUCH. 
XVI.     THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES. 
XVII.     THE  BOOKS  OF  EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

HISTORICAL     LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE    IN    THE    HEXATEUCH. 

§199.   The  New  Tendency  Encouraged  in  the  Exile. — 
Consider  (i)  the  effect  of  the  exile  upon  the  ambition  of  isa.  57:17-20. 
Israel  to  be  a  nation  among  other  nations  of  the  earth  ; 

(2)  the  actual  condition,  in   the  exile,  of  all   political  a  Cbron.  35 : 17-21. 
institutions  and   political   machinery;  (3)  the  certainty  isa.  41  :i7-*>- 
that  under  these  conditions  the    minds  of   the  leaders 

and  the  energies  of  the  people  would  be  turned  in  some 

other  direction;   (4)  the    naturalness  and,  indeed,  the  Ezek..  chaps. 

inevitableness  of  a  turning  in  the  direction  of  a  more 

definitely  religious,  as  distinguished    from   a  political, 

regime;  (5)  the  foundation  for  this  movement  already  isa.  44:24-38. 

prepared  in  the  two  great  doctrines  of  individualism,  as 

preached    by   the    priest    Jeremiah,    and   solidarity,   as  Jer.  31:291. 

preached  by  the  priest  Ezekiel  —  doctrines  preached  in  Ezek.,  chaps.  18, 

view  of  and  in  connection  with  the  fall  of  the  nation. 

See  J.  R.  SLATER,  "Individualism  and  Solidarity  as  Developed 
by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,"  BIBLICAL  WORLD,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp. 
172-83;  MONTEFIORE,  Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Reli- 
gion as  Illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews,  pp.  216-19, 
251-3;  DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  488  f. 

§200.  The  Basis  of  This  Tendency  toward  Priestly 

Influence. —  Observe    now    three    things:    (i)    that    the    2 Kings 22:3— 

23 152. 
priestly  influence  had  long  been  in  existence,  and  that 

only  a  century  or  so  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  had 

been  greatly  strengthened  by  the  union  of  effort  in  which 

prophet  and  priest  joined,  and  of  which  the  promulgation 

of  Deuteronomy  was  the  result  (cf.  §§25-8,    170);  (2)  jer.  1:1;  Ezek. 

that  the  prophetic  work  in  these  last  days  had  in  large 

measure  fallen  to  priests,  e.  g.,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel ; 

(3)  that,  inasmuch  as  the  will  of  God  had  now  been  pre- 
sented so  clearly  in  the  prophetic  word  (for  prophecy  had 
practically  completed  its  work,  having  reached  its  highest 
development  in  Jeremiah)  and  in  the  written  law  (the  a  Kings  22: 3; 
law  as  found  in  Deuteronomy  having  been  canonized  in 


ig6 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Dent  10:  8. 


Ezod.  20:93 — 
23:33;  Deut. 
chaps.  16-36. 


Ezek. ,  chaps. 
40-48. 


Mai.  i :  6-14 ; 

Zech.  14:  i6ff. 
Leviticus. 


Hag.  1:7-14; 
a:  1-9;  Zech. 
6:9-14. 


Cf.  P  (below). 


Cf.  Chroniclei. 


621  B.  C),  the  task  that  remained  was  not  so  much  the 
revelation  of  new  truth  as  the  interpretation,  organi- 
zation, and  application  of  the  great  body  of  truth 
already  known.  Such  ministration  was  the  work  of  the 
priest- 

§201.  The  Origin  of  the  Idea  of  the  Church  or  Com- 
munity.—  Consider  now  to  what  extent  the  idea  and 
practice  of  the  community  or  church  (i)  were  the  further 
development  of  the  priestly  conception  and  ritual  which 
existed  before  the  exile  and  were  formulated  during  the 
exile  by  Ezekiel  in  his  visions ;  (2)  were  the  direct 
outcome  of  the  prophetic  teaching  of  individualism  and 
solidarity  (see  §  199);  and  still  further  (3)  were  the  neces- 
sary result  of  the  historical  forces  which  combined  to 
destroy  the  nation  and  put  an  end  to  prophetic  work  and 
leadership. 

§202.  The  Purpose  of  the  Church.  —  (i)  Study,  as 
widely  as  possible  (e.  g.,  in  Ezekiel's  code,  the  Levitical 
code,  and  the  priestly  prophets),  the  purpose  of  the 
church  as  it  now  began  to  take  the  place  of  the  nation, 
as  that  purpose  exhibited  itself  (a)  in  the  emphasis  placed 
on  worship,  (b)  in  the  multiplication  of  ordinances  seek- 
ing to  preserve,  organize,  and  develop  the  ritual  of  the 
temple;  and  (2)  consider  how  greatly  such  interest 
(already  existing  in  the  exile)  would  be  strengthened 
when  the  return  had  taken  place,  the  temple  had  been 
rebuilt,  and  worship  had  actually  been  established  in  the 
new  environment. 

§203.  The  Desire  to  Prepare  Histories  of  Worship. — 
Consider  how,  under  these  circumstances,  there  would 
come  into  existence  the  desire  (i)  to  trace  the  beginnings 
of  these  ordinances  to  the  earliest  times,  and  to  show 
the  place  assigned  them  under  the  great  leaders  of  the 
past ;  (2)  to  write  a  narrative  which  would  present  their 
history  through  the  long  centuries  from  David's  time 
down  to  the  last  days  —  a  story  parallel  with  that  other 
narrative  (prepared  by  the  prophets  who  had  now  passed 
away)  which,  in  representing  prophetic  truth,  had  almost 
entirely  ignored  the  priest-side  of  the  national  history; 
and  (3)  to  show  just  how  these  institutions  were  finally 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE 

reinstated  or  re-established  after  the  return  by  the  great   cf.  Ezra  and 

Nehemlah. 

leaders  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  This  desire  found  its  reali- 
zation in  what  we  may  call  the  histories  of  the  priestly 
school. 

§  204.  The  Histories  of  the  Prophetic  School. —  Recall 
(i)  the  history  of  J,  the  work  of  a  Judean  prophet,  prob-  Gen.  3:4*5— 4:26; 
ably  the  oldest  of  the  prophetic  histories,  which  gathers 
up  the  stories  and  traditions  of  the  earliest  times  down 
to  the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan  and  uses  all  this 
material  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  and  enforcing 

the   truths  of  prophecy:1   (2)   the  history  of   E,  which   Gen.  15:1,5,16; 

chap,  ao;  etc. 
covers  practically  the  same  ground  as  J,  but  is  written  from 

the  point  of  view  of  northern  Israel,  and  is  somewhat  less 
naive  in  its  conception  of  God  and  in  respect  to  other 
theological  ideas;2  (3)  the  histories  found  in  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  which  trace  the  progress  of  the 
nation  from  the  conquest  to  the  exile ;  and  note  the 
principal  characteristics,  common  to  them  all,  viz.: 
(a)  that  they  are  in  large  part  compilations  of  older  aSam.  x:i8; 

material;    (t>)    the    emphasis   laid    by   them    upon    the      14:29;  a  King's 

15:26;  etc. 
thought  of  sin   as  the  cause  of  all  of  Israel's  troubles ;   a  Kings,  chap.  24. 

(<r)  the  purpose  of  their  work  as  evidently  didactic, 
rather  than  historical  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word ; 

1  The  J-material  in  Gen.,  chaps.  1-40,  is:  2:43 — 4:26;  5:29;  6:1-8;  7:1-5, 
7-10,  12,  173,  22f.;  8:23,33,6-12,133,20-22;  9:18-27;  io:l3,  8-19,  21,24-30; 
11:1-9,28-30;  12:1-43,6-20;  13:1-5,63-113,13-18;  15  :3f.,  6-1 1,  I7f.;  16:  i3, 
2,4-14;  18:1 — 19:28,  30-38;  21:13,23,7,28-30,33;  22:20-24;  24:1 — 25:6, 
18,  21-263,  28;  26:1-33,  6-14,  i6f.,  19-33;  27:13,  2,  3,  43,  53,  6,  73,  15,  i83-20, 
24-293,  29*:,  303,  30^,  313-34,  4*3-42,  433,  450,-  28 : 10,  13-16,  19  ;  29  :  2-14,  31-35 ; 
30:33-16,  22c,  233,  24 f.,  27,  29-313,  34-383,  39-403,  40^-43;  31  :l,  17,  183,  25,  27, 
31,  43f.,  46,  48-50;  32  :  3-73,  13^-223,  23^-29,  31  f.;  33  : 1-183,-  34  : 23,  33,  3^,  5,  7, 
11,  19,  26,  293-31;  35:14,16-223,-  36:31-39;  37:23,  2^-4,  12,133,  I43,l83,2l, 
253-27,  283,  323,  35  ;  38  : 1 — 39  : 63,  73-23.  The  remainder  of  the  document  may  be 
found  in  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II ; 
or  in  ADDIS,  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I ;  or  in  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  the  Old  Testament. 

3 The  E-material  in  Gen.,  chaps.  1-40,  is :  15:1,2,5,16;  20:1-18;  21:6,8-27, 
31  f.,  34 ;  22  : 1-13,  19 ;  25  : 253,  27,  29-34  ;  27  =  i3, 40,  73-M,  16-183,  21-23,  3°3,  313, 
35-413,44,453,-  28:iif.,  17 f.,  20,  213,  22;  29:1,  15-23,25-283,30;  30:1-33,17- 
20,  26,  313-33,  383,  403,-  31:2-16,  19-24,26,28-30,32-42,47,51—32:2,233,30; 
33:18^-20;  35:1-5,63-8;  37:5-11,133,143,  173,  1 9  f.,  22-253,  283,28^-31,  323,  333, 
34>  3°»  39  =  6^,  73,-  40: 1-23.  For  the  remainder  of  the  document  see  literature  cited 
in  the  foregoing  footnote. 


IQ8  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(d)  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  material,  which  is 
such  as  to  enforce  the  great  lessons  of  prophecy. 

§205.  The  Priestly  Histories. —  Under  this  head  may 
be  classified  (i)  the  priestly  narrative  in  the  Hexateuch; 
(2)  the  books  of  Chronicles,  which  furnish  a  parallel 
history,  as  understood  by  the  priest,  for  the  entire 
period  covered  by  the  prophetic  history  found  in 
s«e  ?ao4.  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings ;  and  (3)  the  books  of 

Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  which  describe  the  restoration  from 
exile  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  temple  and  its 
elaborate  system  of  worship.  These  all  possess  the  same 
general  characteristics  of  style,  are  controlled  by  the 
same  theological  ideas,  are  interested  in  the  same  general 
subject,  and  are  written  from  the  same  priestly  point  of 
view. 

§206.  The  Historical  Character  of  the  Priestly  His- 
tories.—  Keep  in  mind  (i)  the  purpose  of  these  so-called 
histories,  viz.,  to  represent  the  priest-side,  that  is,  the 
element  of  worship ;  (2)  the  consequent  necessity  of 
making  selections  from  the  large  body  of  material  in 
existence;  (3)  the  fragmentary  and  disconnected  char- 
acter of  the  material  which  comes  by  selection  ;  (4)  the 
only  method  that,  under  these  circumstances,  can  be 
employed  —  that  of  compilation;  (5)  the  danger  of 
confusion  and  disorder ;  (6)  the  certainty  that  material 
having  its  origin  centuries  after  the  event  described  will 
not  be  intended  to  serve  as  a  chronicle  of  the  event,  but 
rather  to  meet  some  definite  and  practical  end  in  view; 
(7)  the  difference  between  actual  history  and  idealized 
story;  (8)  the  meaning  of  the  word  "pragmatic"  as 
applied  to  history. 

See,  e.  g.,  my  article  in  Sunday  School  Times,  July,  1889  ;  GEO. 
F.  MOORE,  art.  "  Historical  Literature,"  Encyloptzdia  Biblica,  Vol. 
II;  W.  E.  BARNES,  "The  Religious  Standpoint  of  the  Chronicler," 
American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIII 
(1896-97),  pp.  14-20;  T.  G.  SOARES,  "The  Import  of  the  Chronicles 
as  a  Piece  of  Religio-Historical  Literature,"  American  Journal  of 
Theology,  Vol.  Ill  (1899),  pp.  251-74;  C.  C.  TORREY,  The  Composi- 
tion and  Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemia  ("Beiheft  zur  Zeitschrift 
fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft"  II,  1896);  L.  DIESTEL,  "Die 
hebraische  Geschichtesschreibung,"  Jahrbiicher  fiir  deutsche  Theo- 
logie,  Vol.  XVIII  (1873),  pp.  365  ff.;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  "Die 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE  199 

Formenreichtum  der  israelitischen  Geschichtsliteratur,"  Zeitschrift 
fur  lutherische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1870),  pp.  31  ff.; 
J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  His- 
torians (1901),  pp.  241  ff.,  271  ff. 

§  207.  The  Scope  of  the  Priestly  Narrative. — This 
document  is  found  alongside  of  the  prophetical  histories 
J  and  E  in  the  Hexateuch.3  Like  them  it  goes  back  to 

the  time  of  creation  and  sketches  the  course  of  events  viv,n  *..—  3:4*,- 

Josh.,  chaps.  14, 
up  to  the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan.     This  leads  it      15, 17.  etc. 

in  many  cases  to  duplicate  the  narratives  of  the  pro- 
phetic historians:  but,  although  the  same  events  are  Gen.  34:1,2*,  3^, 

4,  6.  8-10,  12-18, 

often   narrated  in   both  accounts,  the  point  of  view  is     20-35,  37-39*,- 
widely  different,  since  the  purposes  of  the  two  schools      5/7,  ix,  19,  etc! 
of  writers  are  of  a  different  character.    The  priestly  nar- 
rative is  primarily  concerned  with  questions  like  (a)  the 
divine  choice  of  Israel  as  the  peculiar  people  of  God  ; 
(£)  the  divine  origin  of  her  system  of  worship ;  (c)  the 
growth  of  the  accompanying  institutions  and  customs. 

§  208.  The  Gradual  Growth  of  the  Priestly  Narrative. — 
A  careful  examination  of  this  priestly  narrative  reveals 
that  it  is  not  all  the  work  of  one  hand  or  one  time,  but, 
like  the  prophetic  histories,  is  a  compilation  of  older 
materials,  which  have  gradually  been  brought  together 
and  wrought  into  a  homogeneous  narrative.  This  ap- 
pears (a)  from  the  fact  that  there  are  many  repetitions 

3  The  material  belonging  to  the  priestly  narrative,  as  indicated  in  The  Hexateuch, 
by  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  is  as  follows  :  Gen.  i:  i — 2  :  40,- 
5:1-28,  30-32;  6:9-22;  7:6,  II,  13-173,  18-21,  24;  8:1,  20,  3*5-5,  130,  14-19; 
9  :I-I7,  28,  29;  10:  la,  2-7,  20,  22,  23,  31,  32  ;  n:  10-27,  31.  32  5  I2  :  4^>  5  '»  X3  :(>0, 
110,12;  16:10,3,15,16;  17:1-27;  19:29;  2i:l3,  23-5;  23: 1-20;  25  :  7-17,  19, 20, 
26^,-  26:34,  35;  27:46—28:9;  29:24,  283,  29;  30:21,  220;  3l:l83;  33:i83; 
34  : 1-20,  33,  4,  6,  8-10,  12-18,  20-25,  27-290,-  35  :  60,  9-13,  15,  223 — 36  :  30,  40-43 ; 
37:1,  20,  2c;  41:45^,  460,-  46:6-27;  47:5,  60,  77i  i,  273,  28;  48:3-7;  49:10, 
28-330,  33<r;  50:12,  13;  Exod.  1:1-5,  7.  J3.  M^/  2:233-25;  6:2 — 7:13,  19,  200, 
216,22;  8:5-7,153-19;  9:8-12;  11:9 — 12:20,24,28,40 — 13:2,20;  14:1-4,8, 
93,  153,  i63-i8,  210,  21^-23,  26,  270,  280,  29;  16:1-3,  5~35;  17:10,'  19:1,  20, 
24:153-180;  25:1 — 31:180,-  34:29 — 40:38;  Lev.  l:l — 27:34;  Numb.  l:l  — 
10:28,  34;  13:1-170,  2l3,  25,  260,  32;  14:10,  2,  5-7,  90,  10,  26-30,  32-390, 
15  : 1-41 ;  16  : 10,  l3,  23,  3-11,  16-24,  260,  270,  323,  33^,  35 — 20: 10,  2,  33,  4,  6-80, 
Sc-i  3,  223-29;  21:40,10,110;  22:1;  25:6 — 32:38;  33:1 — 36:13;  Deut.  32  : 48-52; 
34  : 10,  if,  $d,  7-9  ;  Josh.  3  :40,  8,  15,  16;  4  :  73,  80,  13,  15-17,  19;  5  : 10-12;  9  : 15^, 
17-21;  13:15 — 14:5;  15:1-12,20-61;  16:4-9;  17:1-10;  18:1,  II — 19:46,48 — 
21:42;  22:9-34. 


20O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Bxod.,  chaps.  25-  within  the  priestly  narrative  itself,  e.  ST.,  the  repetition  of 

30,    cf.  35-40; 

Numb.,  chaps,     the  account  of  the  structure  of  the  tabernacle,  the  double 

1-3,  cf.  26 ;  Lev., 

chap.  23,  cf.        account  of  the  census  of  Israel,  the  two  recensions  of 

Numb.,  chaps. 

38,29.  the  laws  concerning  feasts,  etc.;  and  (b)  from  the  differ- 

ent tone  and  character  of  various  parts  of  the  narrative. 
It  is  now  generally  granted  that- there  are  at  least  four 
different  strata  in  this  work.  These  are  (i)  a  continuous 
narrative  from  the  creation  to  the  settlement  in  Canaan, 
which  forms  the  groundwork  of  the  priestly  narrative 

Lev., chaps.  17-26.   (=P*);  (2)  the  Holiness  Code(=Ph):  (3)  a  collection 
Numb.  15:1-31; 
etc.  of   priestly  teachings  on   subjects   connected  with  the 

Exod. 30:22—  various  institutions  (— P');  (4)  "a  miscellaneous  set 
of  secondary  enlargements,  ranging  over  a  wide  variety 
of  topics — genealogical  expansions,  legislative  elabora- 
tions, illustrative  narratives,  etc."(=F). 

See,  e.  g.,].  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The 
Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  142  ff.;  ADDIS,  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  1 86  ff.;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp. 
332  ff.;  STEUERNAGEL,  Deuteronomium  und  Josua,  und  allgemeine 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  p.  272;  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die 
Bucher  des  Alien  Testaments,  pp.  154!?.;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena 
to  the  History  of  Israel,  p.  385. 

§209.    The  Sources  of  the  Priestly  Narrative. —  (i) 

Gen.  6:5-8;  Examine  carefully  some  of  the  narratives  contained  in 

7:1-5, 7-10, 

etc. ;  cf. e : 9-22 ;  both  the  prophetic  history  and  in  the  priestly  narrative. 
7: 6,  xi,  etc. 

e.  g.,  the  accounts  of  the  deluge,  the  story  of  Dinah,* 

the  bringing  of  water  from  the  rock  in  the  wilderness,5 
etc.,  and  consider  whether  the  prophetic  and  priestly 
writers  are  to  be  regarded  (a)  as  having  used  the  same 
sources,  or  (b)  as  having  used  different  sources,  or  (c) 
as  being  dependent  one  upon  the  other;  if  the  latter, 
which  is  the  original  ? 

(2)  Consider,  further,  whether  it  is  probable  that  any 
sources  other  than  popular  traditions  were  ever  in  exist- 
ence for  the  study  of  the  earliest  prehistoric  times.  In 
cases  where  the  priestly  and  prophetic  accounts  of  the 

4  In  the  Dinah  narrative  the  following  material  is  from  P  :  Gen.  34  :  I,  2a,  30,  4, 
6,  8-10,  12-18,  20-25,  27-290,-  and  the  remainder  of  chap.  34  belongs  to  J. 

s  In  Numb.,  chap.  20,  the  following  material  is  assigned  to  P  :  20  :  la,  2,  3^-4, 
6-8a,  8^-13,  22^-29;  the  following  to  J:  20:16,  30,  5,  83,  19  f.;  and  the  remainder 
to  E. 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE  201 

same  event  differ  widely,  e.  g.,  in  the  accounts  of  the 
events  at  Sinai,6  what  explanation  maybe  given?7  Is 
the  difference  to  be  explained  as  due  to  the  use  of  vary- 
ing sources  or  as  a  result  of  the  different  purpose  and 
point  of  view  of  these  writers  ? 

(3)  Compare  the  creation  accounts  of  J  and  P  with  Gen. in— 3:4*,- 
each  other,  and  still  further  with  the  creation  stories  as  24*. 
found  on  Babylonian  tablets.  Note  carefully  the  points 
of  resemblance  and  difference,  and  try  to  determine  (a) 
which  of  the  two  shows  the  clearer  traces  of  Babylonian 
influence;  (<$)  whether  they  both  resemble  the  same 
Babylonian  tradition ;  or  (c)  whether  each  reflects  a 
different  Babylonian  tradition :  or  (d)  whether  the 
Hebrew  and  Babylonian  accounts  are  to  be  considered 
as  parallel, but  independent,  narratives,  (e)  If  the  Baby- 
lonian accounts  are  considered  as  sources  of  the  He- 
brew narratives,  note  how  thoroughly  the  Hebrew  writers 
have  edited  their  sources  and  the  different  style  of  edit- 
ing done  by  P  as  compared  with  J. 

For  English  translations  of  these  Babylonian  stories  see  W. 
Muss-ARNOLT's  rendering  in  R.  F.  HARPER'S  Assyrian  and  Babylo- 
nian Literature  ("  The  World's  Great  Books,"  Aldine  edition,  New 
York,  1901),  pp.  282-300.  On  the  relations  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Babylonian  accounts,  see  LENORMANT,  The  Beginnings  of  His- 
tory, pp.  47-66  ;  GUNKEL,  The  Legends  of  Genesis;  IOHN  D.  DAVIS, 
Genesis  and  Semitic  Tradition,  pp.  1-22;  H.  ZIMMERN,  Biblischc 
und  babylonische  Urgeschichte  (1901);  J.  BARTH,  Babel  und  israeli- 
tisches  ReligioMwesen  (1902),  pp.  21-31. 

§  210.      The    Legislation    Embodied    in    the    Priestly 
Narrative. —  Note  that,  just  as   the   prophetic   histories  Exod.  34:17-28. 
included  some  elements  of  legislation,  viz.,  the  smaller 
Book  of  the  Covenant  in  J,  and  the  greater  Book  of  the  Bxod.  20:23— 
Covenant,  with  the  Decalogue  (Exod.  20:1-17),  in  E, 
so  the  priestly  narrative  contains  its  proportion  of  laws. 

6  For  the  distribution  of  material  among  the  various  sources  in  Exod.,  chaps. 
19-40,  in  the  book  of  Leviticus,  and  in  Numb.,  chaps,  i-io,  see  the  literature  cited 
in  note  I. 

^Other  stories  which  are  thought  to  be  duplicates  are  :  (l)  the  account  of  the  birth 
of  Hagar,  etc.,  in  Gen.,  chap.  16  (P  =  16  :  la,  3,  15,  16  ;  the  remainder  belongs  to  J); 
(2)  the  birth  of  Isaac  (P  =  Gen.  21 :  ii>,  26,  3-5;  the  remainder  belongs  to  J  and  E): 
the  revelation  of  God  to  Jacob  at  Bethel  (P  =  Gen.  35  :  6a,  9-13,  15  ;  the  remainder 
belongs  to  J  and  E). 


232  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Bxod.  is :  1-20,       This  legal  element  is  found  in  portions  of  Exodus  and 

25  f .,  43-40" 

13:1;  35:1—       Numbers  and  in  the  entire  book  of  Leviticus,    (i)  Notice 

31 : 17 ;  chaps. 

35-40;  Numb,      the  relatively  large  amount  of  space  and  consideration 

5  •  * — 9  •  IOI 

chaps.  15, 18,       given  to  legal  matters  in  P,  as  compared  with  J  and  E. 
19,38-31,  and 

35.  Is  it  not  true  that  in  J  and  E  the  legal  material  is  inci- 

dental, while  in  P  it  is  the  essential  and  all-important 
thing  ?  (2)  How  may  this  increase  of  legal  material  be 
accounted  for  ?  Is  it  perhaps  due  to  the  greater  interest 
of  the  priestly  writers  in  such  matters  ? 

§211.  Orderly,  Systematic   Treatment   of   Material. — 
Gen.  1:1— 3:40.      Read  the  priestly  narrative  of  the  creation,  and  (i)  notice 
that  the  order  of  events  is  carefully  distributed  through- 
out six  days,  corresponding  to  the  working  days  of  the 
week,  and  that  God  is  represented  as  resting  upon  the 
Gen.  2:40-35.        seventh  day.     (2)  Is  not  the  whole  account  much  more 
systematic  than  the  prophetic  account  of  the  same  sub- 
Gen.  3  -.40,-  5:1;     ject  in  the  following  chapter?     (3)  Consider  also  the 

6:9; 10 : i ; 

11:10;  11:37;      division  of  the  patriarchal  period  into  ten  "generations," 

25: 12;  25:19;  ~ 

36:1537:2.         beginning  with  the  "generations  of  the  heaven  and  of 

the  earth,"8  and  ending  with  the  generations  of  Jacob. 
Gen.x:i;8:i;       (4)  Notice  that  prior  to  the  time  of  Abraham   the  gen- 
Gen.'^:!,  eral  name  elohim  is  used;  between  Abraham  and  Moses 
Bxod.  6:sf.          the  name  el  shaddai  appears ;  after  the  times  of  Moses  the 
name  is  Jehovah.     (5)  Observe  the  similar  system  which 
appears  in  the  presentation  of  the  covenant  idea ;   the 
first  covenant  being  represented  as  having  been  made 
Gen.  9:8-17.          with  Noah,  its  sign  —  the  rainbow;  the  second  covenant 
Gen.,  chap.  17.       being  with  Abraham,  its  sign  —  circumcision;  while  still 
Bxod.  3i:i6f.        later  the  sabbath  is  spoken  of  as  a  covenant,  and  as  the 
sign  of  a  covenant. 

See  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament 
(6th  ed.),  pp.  I29ff.;  HOLZINGER,  Einleilung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp. 
353  ff.;  J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly 
Historians,  pp.  245  f.;  STEUERNAGEL,  Deuteronomium  und  Josua  u. 
s.  w.,  pp.  271  f. 

§  2 1 2.  The  Fondness  of  the  Priestly  Narrative  for  Genea- 

Gen.  1:1—3:40,-     logical  Statements. —  (i)  Recall  the  fact,  previously  men- 
5:1;  10:1;  etc. 

tioned,  that  the   creation   account  and   the  patriarchal 

•Gen.  2  -.40  belongs  to  P's  preceding  narrative  and  should  probably  be  transposed 
to  the  beginning  of  chap.  I. 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE 


203 


history  are  presented  in  the  form  of  genealogies.  (2) 
Notice  further  the  large  amount  of  genealogical  material 
in  the  priestly  narratives,  and  that  long  periods  of  time 
are  frequently  represented  by  nothing  more  than  a  genea- 
logical list.  (3)  Does  it  seem  that  the  writer  uses  these 
lists  in  large  part  as  connecting  links  for  his  narrative, 
hastening  over  by  their  means  long  periods  of  time  in 
which  he  has  no  especial  interest,  in  order  to  give  more 
attention  to  matters  in  which  he  is  vitally  concerned  ? 

"  §  2 1 3.  Prevalence  of  Statistics  and  Dates  in  the  Priestly 
Narrative. —  In  illustration  of  this  characteristic  of  P, 
recall  the  fact  that  it  gives  the  ages  of  the  antediluvians ; 
the  dimensions  of  the  ark ;  the  date  of  the  flood ;  the 
depth  of  the  waters  of  the  flood  and  its  duration ;  the 
age  of  Abraham  at  various  junctures  in  his  life  ;  the  price 
paid  for  the  field  of  Ephron  ;  the  number  of  people  that 
entered  Egypt;  the  duration  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt; 
the  date  of  the  arrival  in  the  wilderness  of  Sin  and  of  that 
at  Sinai ;  the  dimensions  and  specifications  of  the  ark  of 
testimony,  the  table  of  shewbread,  and  the  golden  can- 
dlestick ;  most  minute  specifications  for  the  tabernacle 
with  all  its  furnishings ;  the  exact  dates  of  all  feasts  ;  a 
census  of  Israel  at  Sinai ;  the  exact  value  of  the  offerings 
made  in  connection  with  the  dedication  of  the  altar ;  a 
careful  demarkation  of  the  boundaries  of  the  various 
tribes ;  etc.  Does  not  the  presence  of  so  much  material 
of  this  sort  render  the  general  style  stiff  and  precise 
as  compared  with  the  free,  flowing  narratives  of  J 
and  E? 

§  2 1 4.  The  Style  of  the  Priestly  Narrative  is  Repetitious. 
—  (i)  Observe  that  the  account  of  the  structure  of  the 
tabernacle  is  given  in  full  twice ;  also  that  the  census  of 
Israel  at  Sinai  is  twice  narrated.  (2)  Read  Numb.,  chap. 
7,  and  notice  that  six  verses  are  used  twelve  times  in  this 
chapter.  (3)  Consider,  further,  the  large  extent  to  which 
certain  formulas  and  stereotyped  phrases  are  repeated, 
and  the  fact  that  many  sentences  are  cast  in  the  same 
mold.  (4)  Are  some  of  these  repetitions  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  priestly  narrative  is  a  compilation  ?  But  can 
the  tendency  to  the  repeated  use  of  the  same  phraseology 


Ezod.  6: 14*37; 
Numb.  1:5-16, 
ao,47;  3:14-39; 
26 :i — 27: ii. 


Gen., chap.  5; 
6: isf.;  7:6, ii, 
13,20, 24;  8:3  if., 
13,  14;  12:4; 
16:3,  16;  17: i, 
24 if. ;  21:5; 
23:16;  46:27: 
Exod.  12:  401.; 
16 :  i ;  19 :  i ; 
25:  ioff.,  23,  25, 
31  ff. ;  chaps. 
26-30  and  35-40; 
Lev.,  chap.  23; 
Numb.,  chaps. 
28,  29;  chaps. 
1-3,  and  26; 
chap.  7;  34:i-'5 


Exod.,  chaps.  26- 
30  and  35-40; 
Numb.,   chaps. 
1-3  and  26  57:13- 
17;    Gen.    1:5, 
83, 13,  etc.;  10: 
5,  ao,  31 1;  25: 
16;    36:40,   43, 
etc. ;  Gen.  5:6  8, 
9-11,12-14, etc  ; 
ii  :  lo-n,  12-13, 
etc. ;  12 : 46; 
16: 16;  17.24!. ; 
21:5;  25 : *66; 
41 : 46<z;  Ezod. 
7:7;  Numb. 
33:39;  i:2of.f 
22  f . ,  etc. ; 
2:  3-9,  10-16, 
etc. 


204  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

be  so  explained  ?     Is  it  not  a  marked   characteristic  of 
the  priestly  style  ? 

On  the  style  of  the  priestly  narrative  in  general  see  :  DRIVER, 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.),  pp. 
126-35;  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The 
Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  I25f.;  GUNKEL,  The  Legends  of  Genesis,  pp. 
145!.,  148;  HotziNGER,  Einkitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  349-54; 
BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes,  pp. 
96-102  ;  and  the  articles  by  W.  R.  HARPER  and  W.  H.  GREEN  in 
Hebraica,  Vols.  V  and  VI. 

§215.  The  Selection  of  Material  in  the  Priestly  Narra- 
tive. —  (i)  Consider  whether,  if  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  the 
priestly  writers  to  write  a  history  in  the  modern  sense  of 
the  word,  but  rather  to  teach  certain  truths  with  reference 
to  God  and  the  proper  methods  of  worship,  it  may  not  be 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  selected  and  arranged 
their  material  with  a  view  to  its  appropriateness  to  the 
end  they  had  in  view.  (2)  Notice,  for  example,  (a)  that, 
while  in  J  the  narrative  of  the  creation  is  merely  intro- 

Gen.  1:1—2:40.  ductory  to  the  account  of  man's  first  sin,  in  P  the  cre- 
ation narrative  is  treated  in  a  manner  to  emphasize 
strongly  the  sanctity  of  the  sabbath  ;  (H)  that  between 
the  creation  and  Abraham  the  centuries  are  bridged  over 
by  means  of  genealogies,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
deluge  and  the  account  of  the  covenant  with  Noah  ;  (c) 

Gen.,  chap.  17.  that  the  only  incidents  in  Abraham's  life  to  which  P 
gives  any  consideration  are  the  account  of  the  institu- 

Gen.,  chap.  23.       tion  of  circumcision  with  the  accompanying  covenant, 

Gen.  28:1-9.  and  the  purchase  of  the  field  of  Ephron  ;  (d}  that  the 
only  incident  treated  in  the  life  of  Isaac  is  the  care 
taken  to  provide  for  his  son's  marriage  to  a  woman  of 

Gen.  34  :  x  f.,  33,  4,  his  own  race;  and  in  Jacob's  life  the  failure  of  the  pro- 

6,  8-10,  12-18, 

etc.;  35:9-13,      posed  alliance  between  the  sons  of  Jacob  and   the  men 
15;  46:  6-27. 

of  Shechem,  the  appearance   of  God  to  him  at  Bethel 

with   the   promise   to   bless    his   descendants,    and    his 

entrance   into    Egypt   with    his   sons  ;    (e)  that  in   the 

Exod.  ia  :  1-20,       account  of  the  exodus  the  only  incidents  receiving  any 

considerable  attention  are  the  institution  of  the  Passover, 


d.  .chaps.  25-  the  giving  of  manna  on  six  days  and  its  withholding  on 
40;  Lev.,  chaps. 
1-27;  etc.  the  seventh,  and  the  legislation  at  Sinai  which  consti- 

tutes the  bulk  of  the  priestly  narrative.     (3)  Consider  in 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE  2O5 

each  of  the  above  cases  why  the  incident  was  chosen  for 
treatment  to  the  exclusion  of  other  material,  much  of 
which  would  have  been  of  more  interest  and  value  as 
pure  history. 

See,  e.  g.t  GUNKEL,  The  Legends  of  Genesis,  pp.  146  f.;   HOL- 
ZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  359  f. 

§216.  The  Theological  Point  of  View  of  the  Priestly 
Narrative. — (i)  Is  not  the  conception  of  God  that  appears 
in  the  priestly  narrative  in  many  respects  the  highest 
attained  in  the  Old  Testament  ?  Note  that  in  the 
creation  account  of  P,  as  compared  with  that  of  J,  all 
anthropomorphic  features  are  lacking;  it  is  sufficient  for  Gen.i:i-a:4«. 
God  to  speak  and  the  thing  is  done.  He  is  most  holy, 

so  that  none  but  members  of  the  holiest  class  may  come  Humb.,  chap.  18; 

,  ,  ,  .  Lev.,  chap.  8. 

near  his  altar  or  perform  the  highest  functions  of  his  wor- 
ship ;  and  these  ministers  are  set  apart  by  a  most  solemn 
service  of  consecration.  The  usual  manifestation  of  his 

presence  is  by  means   of  a  cloud  resting  upon  the  tent  Biod.  40:3411.; 
J,  Wumb.  16:19. 

of  meeting  and  the  appearance  of  his  "glory.       In  the 

presence  of  such  a  holy  Being  the  sinfulness  of  man  is 
greatly  intensified  ;  constant  sacrifices  are  necessary  to 
make  atonement ;  and  there  is  an  obligation  resting  upon  LCT.  xg:a. 
all  Israel  to  be  holy,  because  God  is  holy.  This  exalted 
conception  of  God  can  be  traced  everywhere  in  the  nar- 
rative and  in  the  legislation.  (2)  To  what  extent  is  it 
due  to  this  conception  of  God  and  of  Israel's  relation  to 
him  that  the  accounts  of  Israel's  ancestors  given  by  P 
differ  so  widely  in  spirit  from  the  corresponding  narra- 
tives of  J  and  E  ?  (3)  Consider  the  significance  of  the 
fact  that  none  of  the  sins  and  shortcomings  of  the  patri- 
archs, so  freely  mentioned  by  the  prophetic  writers,  are 
alluded  to  in  the  priestly  narrative ;  it  being  taken  for 
granted  that  the  patriarchs,  who  were  the  founders  of  the  . 

holy  nation,  as  such  must  themselves  have  been  holy. 
(4)  Note  also  that  no  sacrifices  are  offered  nor  altars  built 
by  the  patriarchs  according  to  the  priestly  narrative,  in 
contrast  with  the  prophetic  account,  because  sacrifice  was  Gen.  35:  e,  g«. ; 
not  legal  until  the  Mosaic  legislation  had  been  given 
and  the  proper  means  for  the  right  conduct  of  sacrifice 
provided. 


2O6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See,  e.  g.,  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (6th  ed.),  pp.  128  f.;  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD- 
BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  TI,  pp,  132  f.;  HOLZINGER,  Ein- 
leitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  376-90  ;  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament,  pp.  231  ff. 

§  217.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

KUENEN,  An  Historico-Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Composition  of  the 
Hexateuch  (1861,  2d  ed.  1885-,  transl.  1886),  pp.  65-107,  272-313;  J.  W.  COLENSO, 
The  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua,  Critically  Examined,  Parts  I-VII  (1862-79); 
WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel  (1878,  4th  ed.  1895  ;  transl.  from 
German  1885),  pp.  385-91;  W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church 
(1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  Lecture  XII ;  DRIVER,  Journal  of  Philology,  Vol.  XI  (1882),  pp. 
201-36  ;  E.  C.  BISSELL,  The  Pentateuch,  Its  Origin  and  Structure  (1885),  pp.  318-61; 
DILLMANN,  Genesis  Critically  and  Exegetically  Expounded  (^  ed.  1886;  transl.  1897), 
Vol.  I,  pp.  1-26;  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  A  New  Commentary  on  Genesis  (5th  ed.  1887; 
transl.  1889),  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-59;  B.  W.  BACON,  "  Pentateuch al  Analysis,"  Hebraica, 
Vol.  IV  (1888),  pp.  219-26;  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews  (1888;  transl.  1895),  Vol. 
I,  pp.  96-134;  W.  H.  GREEN,  Hebraica,  Vol.  V  (1888-89),  PP-  I49ff-,  1621.,  1746°.; 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  127,  133,  167,  i8of.,  196,  210;  Vol.  VII,  pp.  16,  27,  33,  361.,  Ii3ff., 
137  f.,  141;  Vol.  VIII,  371.,  63,  201  f.,  228,  243;  W.  R.  HARPER,  Hebraica,  Vol.  V 
(1888-89),  PP-  22  f.,  25  f.,  33  f.,  45,  52  ff.,  63  ff.,  244  f.,  253,  266  f.,  275,  286;  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  2,  I  if.,  19,  26  f.,  36  ff.,  242  f.,  252,  265  f.,  276  f.,  288  f.;  DRIVER,  An  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891,  6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  126-35;  E-  J-  FRIPP, 
The  Composition  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  (1892);  C.  A.  BRIGGS,  The  Higher  Criticism  of 
the  Hexateuch  (1892,  2d  ed.  1897),  pp.  69-75;  B.  W.  BACON,  The  Genesis  of  Genesis 
(1893),  PP-  54~9>  66-94  5  W.  H.  GREEN,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  (1895), 
pp.  59-133;  IDEM,  The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  (1895),  passim;  ADDIS,  Doc- 
uments of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp.  170-88;  H.  E.  RYLE,  article  "Gene- 
sis" (§  iv  (a))  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II  (1899);  C.  A.  BRIGGS, 
General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture  (1899),  pp.,  329  f.;  F.  H.  WOODS, 
article  "Hexateuch"  (§  iii,  2  and  4  D)  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II 
(1899);  L.  W.  BATTEN,  The  Old  Testament  from  the  Modern  Point  of  View  (1899,  2d 
ed.  1901),  pp.  79-119;  J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexa- 
teuch, Vol.  I  (1900),  pp.  121-56;  G.  F.  MOORE,  articles  "Genesis"  (§§2f.)  and 
"  Historical  Literature  "  (§§  9  f.)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901);  GUNKEL,  The 
Legends  of  Genesis  (1901),  pp.  144-60 ;  WELLHAUSEN,  article  "  Hexateuch"  (§§  19,  23, 
24,  29,  30)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,Vo\.  II  (1901);  J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of 
the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  Historians  (1901),  pp.  239-47. 

H.  HUPFELD,  Die  Quellen  der  Genesis  (1853);  K.  H.  GRAF,  Die  geschichtlichen 
Bucher  des  Allen  Testaments  (1866);  NOLDEKE,  Untersuchungen  zur  Kritik  des  Alien 
Testamentes  (1869);  ED.  RiEHM,"Ueberdie  Grundschrift  des  Pentateuchs,"  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1872,  pp.  283-307;  BLEEK- WELLHAUSEN,  Einleitung  in  das 
Alte  Testament  (4th  ed.  1878),  §§  8 1  ff.;  RYSSEL,  De  Elohistae  sermone  (1878);  GIESE- 
BRECHT,  "Der  Sprachgebrauch  des  hexateuchischen  Elohisten,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die 
alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  I  (1881),  pp.  177-276;  WURSTER,  "Zur  Charakte- 
ristik  und  Geschichte  des  Priestercodex,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1884),  pp.  Iliff.;  DILL- 
MANN,  Die  Bucher  Numeri,  Deuteronomium  und  Josua  ("  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE PRIESTLY    NARRATIVE  207 

Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1886),  pp.  648  f.,  663;  KAUTZSCH  UNO  SOCIN, 
Die  Genesis  mil  dusserer  Unterscheidung  der  Quellen  (1888,  2d  ed.  1891);  WELL- 
HAUSEN,  Die  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  und  der  historischen  Biicher  des  Alten  Testa- 
ments (1889);  RIEHM,  Einleitung  in  das  Aite  Testament,  Vol.  I  (1889),  pp.  253-80; 
C.  H.  CORNILL,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891,  3d  ed.  1896),  pp.  56-68; 
WESTPHAL,  Les  sources  du  Pentateuque,  Tome  2  (1892),  pp.  21-32;  WILDEBOER, 
Die  Litteratur  des  Alten  Testaments  (Dutch,  1893;  transl.  into  German,  1895),  pp. 
306-33;  ED.  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1893),  pp.  225-31;  HOL- 
ZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893),  PP-  332~425  J  STEUERNAGEL,  Ueber- 
setzung  und  Erklarung  der  Biicher  Deuteronomium  und  Josua,  und  allgemeine  Ein- 
leitung in  den  Hexateuch  ("  Handkommentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1900),  pp.  271-8; 
BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes  (1901),  pp.  96-102. 

§  2 1 8.  Constructive  Work. 

1.  Prepare  a  brief  survey  of  early  Israelitish  history  from  the  pas- 
sages ordinarily  assigned  to   P  (see  p.  199,  note  3),  noting  especially 

(a)  the  gaps   which   are    found    to   exist,    that    is,   the    periods   left 
untouched,  or  passed  over   in   the  genealogical  method  (see  §212); 

(b)  the  portions  on  which  large  emphasis  is  laid. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  so-called  duplicates  (cf.  §  209),  that  is, 
those  events  which  are  described  by  some  other  writer  (e.  g.,  J  or  E) 
as  well  as  by  P,  and  observe  particularly  the  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  account  of  P  from  other  accounts. 

3.  Prepare  a  statement  which  (a)  will  present  in  logical  order  the 
various  elements  of  style  that  characterize  P,  (£)  will  show  the  relation- 
ship existing  between  these  characteristics  of  style  and   the  contents, 
and  (f)  will  exhibit  the  contrast  between  the  style  of  P  and  that  of  the 
prophetic  narrators  (J  and  E). 

4.  Trace  the  growth  of  P  in  its  various  stages,  viz.,  Ph,  Pg,  P',  P%  and 
indicate  (a)  the  chronological  order  of  these  various  elements  of  P; 
(b)  the  ideas  and  laws  peculiarly  characteristic  of  each  stage  of  the  P 
legislation. 

5.  Formulate  P's  conception  of  God,  and  trace  the  influence  of 
this  conception  in  (a)  the  contents,  that  is,  as  explaining  why  certain 
things  are  included  or  omitted;  (b}  the  style,  that  is,  as  explaining  why 
the  style  is  in  such  marked  contrast,  e.  g.,  with  the  prophetic  style;  (c) 
the  conception,  that  is,  as  explaining  the  thought  of  the  writer  on 
various  subjects,  e.  g.,  man,  angels,  worship,  etc.,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE THE    BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES. 


i  Chron  i :  i  ;  <•/. 

Gen.  i  :x. 
i  Chron.  i :  1-27. 

i  Chron.  ;• :  28— 
10: 14. 


2  Chron.  36 :  22  f . ; 
cf.  2  Kings 


a  Chron.  36 : 23. 

a  Chron.  36 :  ao, 
22 f. ;  Ezra  4:8; 
5:61.;  7:27*.; 
8:1 ;  Neh.  1:11; 
2 :  x  ff . ;  Hag.  i : 
1,15;  Zech.  7:1. 


i  Chron.  29 : 7. 


§  2 1 9.  The  Scope  of  the  History  in  Chronicles. — Observe 
that  the  narrative  in  Chronicles  (i)  begins,  like  that  in  P, 
with  the  very  beginning  of  the  human  race;  (2)  runs 
rapidly  over  the  early  history  of  mankind  in  general ;  (3) 
takes  up  that  of  the  Hebrew  people,  beginning  with  Abra- 
ham and  hastening  on  to  the  death  of  Saul ;  while  (4)  with 
the  accession  of  David  it  treats  the  history  more  elabo- 
rately, and  covers  the  period  from  David  to  the  exile  in 
the  remainder  of  the  work.  Observe  further  that,  as  com- 
pared with  the  prophetic  history  in  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings,  (i)  while  beginning  at  an  earlier  point  in  history, 
it  gives  very  much  less  consideration  to  the  pre-Davidic 
period ;  (2)  it  leaves  the  history  of  the  Northern  Kingdom 
almost  entirely  out  of  account ;  and  (3)  both  stop  with 
the  exile,  the  end  of  Israel's  national  life. 

Consider,  now,  the  purpose  of  the  compiler  (i)  as 
gathered  from  the  scope  of  his  work;  (2)  as  gathered 
from  a  comparison  with  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings ;  (3) 
as  gathered  from  the  comparative  fulness  of  treatment 
of  different  parts. 

§220.  The  Date  of  the  Books  of  Chronicles. —  Con- 
sidering the  relationship  and  significance  of  old  materials 
in  the  book,  side  by  side  with  materials  which  indicate  a 
comparatively  late  date  for  the  origin  of  the  book  as  a 
whole,  note  (i)  that  the  history  extends  to  the  "first 
year  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia ; "  (2)  that  the  common 
titles  of  Cyrus  and  all  the  Persian  kings  were  "  the 
King,"  the  "Great  King,"  the  "King  of  Kings,"  the 
"  King  of  the  Lands ; "  they  are  never  called  kings  of 
Persia  in  contemporaneous  literature ;  does  not  this  fact 
point  to  a  period  considerably  later  than  that  of  the 
Persian  empire?  (3)  that  the  daric,  a  Persian  coin  intro- 
duced in  the  time  of  Darius  I.  (521-486  B.  C.)  and  named 
208 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES  209 

after  him,  is  spoken  of  as  in  use  in  the  time  of  David  ; 
does  not  this  suggest  that  the  coin  had  been  so  long  in 
use  when  Chronicles  was  prepared  that  the  time  and 
place  of  its  origin  had  been  forgotten  ?  (4)  that  the 
language  of  the  book  has  a  very  strong  Aramaic  coloring, 
is  full  of  words  and  phrases  characteristic  of  post-exilic 
literature,  and  that  the  syntax  is  of  a  decidedly  late  char- 
acter;1 (5)  that  in  the  list  of  Zerubbabel's  descendants  xChron. 3:19-34. 
six  generations  are  enumerated  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  while  the  Septuagint  gives  eleven.  Since  Zerub- 
babel  lived  about  520  B.  C.,  and  a  generation  may  be  Hag.  x:i. 
reckoned  at  about  twenty  years,  this  genealogy,  according 
to  the  Hebrew  text,  gives  us  a  date  about  400  B.  C.;  or,  if 
the  Septuagint  be  accepted,  about  300  B.  C.  (6)  If 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah  are  the  work  of  the  same 
editor  (see  §  226),  may  we  not  use  data  furnished  by  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  to  determine  the  date  of  Chronicles?  In 
Nehemiah,  the  high-priest  Jaddua  is  mentioned,  and  the  Neh.  ia:n,ia. 
phrase  "the  days  of  Jaddua"  is  employed  to  indicate  a 
date  in  the  past.  Does  not  this  suggest  that  the  writer 
lived  some  time  after  Jaddua  ?  But,  according  to  the 
narrative  of  Josephus,2  Jaddua  was  the  high- priest  who 
met  Alexander  the  Great  as  he  marched  through  Syria 
(333  B.  C.)  and  rendered  him  favorable  to  the  Jews. 
Hence  we  get  a  date  about  300  B.  C.  for  the  compilation 
of  Chronicles. 

See,  e.  g.,  BARNES,  The  Books  of  Chronicles  ("  Cambridge  Bible," 
1899),  pp.  xi  f.;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  S.  R.  DRIVER,  article  "Chroni- 
cles," Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I,  col.  764  ;  FRANCIS  BROWN,  article 
''Chronicles  I  and  II,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I, 
p.  392;  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament 
(6th  ed.),  pp.  518  ff. 

§221.  The  Sources  of  the  Books  of  Chronicles. —  Since 
the  chronicler  was  one  of  the  latest  contributors  to  the 
collection  of  writings  known  as  the  Old  Testament,  con- 
sider the  probability  of  his  having  used  many  sources 

1  For  the  linguistic  data  and  their  bearing  on  the  date  of  Chronicles  see  especially 
FR.  BROWN'S  article  "  Chronicles,"  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I,  pp, 
389-92 ;  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.),  pp. 
504  ff.;  and  article  "Chronicles,  Books  of,"  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (§  ll). 

2  Antiquities,  XI,  viii,  4,  5. 


2IO 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


3  Chron.  929, 
la:  15;  13:  aa; 
20:34;  26:22; 
33:34;  33:  19; 
i  Chron.  ag :  29. 


i  Chron.  9:  i; 

16:  ii ;  30:34; 

35 :  a6 ;  37 :  7 ; 

38 :  36 ;  33 : 33 ; 

33:i8;  35:  »7; 

36:8. 
i  Chron.  33:37; 

37:34. 

a  Chron.  35 :  35. 
3  Chron.  34 :  37. 
3  Chron.  30:  33  ff., 

cf.  i  Kings 

33 :  43 ;  34 :  a,  cf. 

3  Kings  13:3; 

35 : 1-4.  cf. 

a  Kings  14:  at, 

5  f . ;  i  Chron.  14 : 

3-7,  cf.  a  Sam. 

15: 13-16;  30 : i, 

cf.i  Sam.  ii :  i. 
i  Chron.  5 : 17. 
i  Chron.  16 :  8  36. 

cf.  Pss.  105 :  i- 

15;  96: 1-13; 

106:1,  47  f. 


already  in  existence  both  within  and  outside  of  the  Old 
Testament  writings,  and  notice  his  frequent  references  to 
such  sources,  viz.:  (i)  a  series  of  prophetic  narratives,3  (a) 
the  "words  of  Nathan,  the  prophet;"  (&)  the  "prophecy 
of  Ahijah,  the  Shilonite;"  (c]  the  "visions  of  Iddo,  the 
seer;"  (d)  the  "words  of  Iddo,  the  seer;"  (e)  the  "mid- 
rash  of  the  prophet  Iddo;"  (/)  the  "words  of  Shemaiah, 
the  prophet ;"  (g)  the  "  words  of  Jehu,  the  son  of  Hanani ;" 
(fi)  "  the  rest  of  the  acts  of  Uzziah,  first  and  last,  did 
Isaiah  the  prophet,  the  son  of  Amoz,  write ;"  (/')  the 
"  vision  of  Isaiah,  the  prophet,  the  son  of  Amoz ;"  (/)  the 
"  words  of  Hozai ;"  (k)  the  "  words  of  Samuel,  the  seer, 
and  of  Gad,  the  seer ;"  (2)  a  set  of  court  records,  vari- 
ously cited  as  (a)  "  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel ;" 
(b)  "  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel ;"  (c)  "  the 
book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  ;"  (d)  "  the  affairs 
of  the  kings  of  Israel ;"  (3)  a  similar  record  of  the  reign 
of  David ;  (4)  a  collection  of  lamentations  ;  (5)  "  the 
midrash  of  the  book  of  the  kings,"  which  is  perhaps 
identical  with  the  "book  of  the  kings  "  cited  under  (2); 
(6)  the  canonical  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  must  have 
been  known  to  the  chronicler,  and  many  passages  indi- 
cate a  close  relationship  between  the  two;  (7)  ancient 
genealogical  lists;  (8)  collections  of  psalms. 

In  connection  with  an  investigation  of  the  sources, 
the  following  general  questions  are  to  be  considered : 
Did  the  chronicler  use  any  sources  other  than  those  used 
by  the  compiler  of  Samuel  and  Kings  ?  Is  the  relation- 
ship between  Chronicles,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Samuel 
and  Kings,  on  the  other,  to  be  explained  as  due  to  (a) 
direct  borrowing  of  the  former  from  the  latter,  or  to  (£) 
the  use  of  the  same  sources  by  both,  or  to  (c)  the  use  by 
the  chronicler  of  a  work  based  upon  the  canonical  books 
of  Samuel  and  Kings?  What  is  the  significance  of  the 
name  "  midrash  "  applied  to  two  of  the  above-mentioned 
sources?  How  much  material,  if  any,  did  the  chronicler 
himself  contribute? 


3  It  is  probable,  however,  that  these  existed  only  as  a  part  of  the  more  compre- 
hensive work  cited  under  (2). 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES 


211 


On  the  sources  of  Chronicles  see,  e.g.,  BARNES, op.  cit.,  pp.  xviii- 
xxi ;  FR.  BROWN,  op.  cit.,  pp.  394  f.;  DRIVER,  Introduction,  etc.,  pp 
519  ff.;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  DRIVER,  Encyclopedia  Biblica,\o\.  I,  coll. 
766  ff.;  BENZINGER,  Die  Bilcher  der  Chronik,  pp.  x  ff.;  KUENEN, 
Einleitung  u.  s.  w.,  §§  28-32;  KITTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  244-30. 

§222.  The  Chronicler's  Treatment  of  His  Sources. — 
This  is  most  easily  seen  by  means  of  a  comparison 
between  Chronicles  on  the  one  hand  and  Samuel  and 
Kings  on  the  other,  (i)  Note  that  some  material  appears 
in  both  works  in  almost  exactly  the  same  form.  Con- 
sider the  character  of  this  material,  (a)  with  reference  to 
its  fitness  for  the  chronicler's  purpose,  (<$)  as  conveying 
ideas  that  were  in  keeping  with  those  represented  by  the 
chronicler  (cf.  §  227).  (2)  Note  the  presence  of  some 
material  not  found  in  Samuel  and  Kings.  Consider  (a) 
the  reason  for  its  incorporation  by  the  chronicler,  (<$)  the 
source  whence  it  was  derived,  (c)  the  question  of  its  his- 
torical credibility.  (3)  Note  the  absence  from  Chronicles 
of  some  material  found  in  Samuel  and  Kings.  Consider 
the  reason  for  its  rejection  by  the  chronicler  as  bearing 
on  the  question  of  the  purpose  of  the  latter.  (4)  Note 
that  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  chronicler  modi- 
fies the  material  in  Samuel  and  Kings  in  some  degree, 
sometimes  condensing  a  narrative  greatly,  sometimes 
expanding ;  at  other  times  changing  the  significance  of 
an  event,  or  magnifying  the  size  of  an  army,  or  disre- 
garding historical  fact.  Consider,  with  reference  to  such 
cases,  whether  the  divergence  is  to  be  explained  (a)  as 
due  to  the  greater  faithfulness  of  one  or  the  other  com- 
piler to  the  source  whence  the  material  was  taken;  or  (b) 
as  demanded  by  the  chronicler's  more  advanced  concep- 
tion of  God  ;  or  (c)  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  chronicler's 
idea  of  the  temple  and  the  cultus ;  or  (tf)  as  a  result  of 
the  different  historical  circumstances  and  influences 
amid  which  the  chronicler  lived,  as  compared  with  the 
times  in  which  Samuel  and  Kings  were  edited  ;  or  (e)  as 
due  to  other  historical  or  theological  influences. 

§  223.  The  Chronicler's  Use  of  Genealogies. — Chron- 
icles resembles  P  in  its  abundant  use  of  genealogical 


i  Chron.  10:  1-12 
(cf.  i  Sam. 
31:  1-13)  ;  ii  :i- 
9  (cf.  a  Sam.  5 : 
1-3,6-10) ;  14:1- 

16  (cf.  3  Sam. 
5:11-35) ;  chap. 

17  (cf.  a  Sam., 
chap.  7) ; 

a  Chron.  i :  14- 
17  (cf.  i  Kings 
10 : 36-39) ! 
9  :2Q — 10: 19  (cf. 
i  Kings  11:41— 
12 : 19) ;  etc. 

i  Chron.  10: 13  f. ; 

14 : 17 ;  chaps. 

2229 ;  a  Chron. 

14=9-15; 

34:20-33; 

33 : 10-13  ;  etc. 
3  Sam.  5:4*. ; 

ii : 3— 13:33; 

13:1—14:33; 

i  Kings,  chaps. 

17, 18,  19; 

3  Kings  3  •  i — 

8: 15;  chap.  10 ; 

etc. 
i  Chron.  13: 15  f. 

(<•/.  3  Sam., 

chap.  6) ; 

3  Chron.  5 : 4 

(cf.  i  Kings 

8:3);  chap.  33 

(cf.  3  Kings, 

chap,  ii ,' ; 

chap.  20  (ff.  a 

Kings, chap. 3) ; 

12 :  2*-8  (cf.  i 

Kings  14: 35!), 

14 :  5  and  17 : 6 

(cf.  i  Kings 

15 : 14 ;  22 :  43) ; 

3 :  i-'3  (cf. 

i  Kings 

6:1-3,15-35); 

8 : 12-16    (cf.  i 

Kings  9 -.25); 

M:3-5  (tf-  i 
Kings  15 : 13) ; 
16 : 12-14  (cf.  i 
Kings  15:23*- 
34*)  ;  38 :  5-15 
(ff.  2  Kings 
16:  5) ;  39:3— 
31 :  2i  (cf.  2 
Kings  i8:4-7a); 
32 : 24-33  (ff-  a 
Kings,  chap. 
30) ;  36:9*-  (cf 
3  Kings  34 : 8- 
17). 


212  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

i  Chron.,  chaps,    lists.     Note  (i)  that  the  period  from  Adam  to  the  death 
of  Saul  is  merely  outlined  by  a  series  of  genealogies ; 

1  Chron.,  chaps.     (2)  the  genealogical  character  of  much  of  the  material 

in  the  narrative  of  David's  preparations  for  the  building 

2  Chron.  29:13-    and  care  of  the  temple;  (3)  the  emphasis  placed  upon 

genealogies  of  the  priests  and  Levites.  How  is  this  use 
of  genealogies  to  be  explained  ?  Why  is  so  much  care 
taken  in  tracing  the  descent  of  priests  and  Levites  ?  Was 
there  any  connection  between  this  and  the  later  Hebrew 
law,  which  was  very  stringent  in  prohibiting  the  participa- 
tion of  foreigners  and  non-Levites  in  the  conduct  of  the 
temple  worship  ?  Whence  may  we  suppose  that  the 
chronicler  secured  these  long  lists  of  names  ?  May 
they  be  depended  upon  as  historically  accurate  ? 

§  224.  The   Chronological  and   Statistical  Character  of 

i  Chron.  12 : 23-37;   Chronicles. — Note  that,  in  addition  to  statistics  given  in  the 
29: 1-9;  2  Chron. 
2:17*.;  15  =  ";  narrative  of  Samuel   and  Kings,  Chronicles  states  the 

17  :  ii,  14-19; 

25:51.;  26:11   number  of  the  Israelites  who  came  to  make  David  king 

ft.;  27:  6;  29: 17, 

21, 32 1.; 30:24;  in  Hebron;  the  value  of  the  offerings  made  in  David's 
last  days  for  the  building  of  the  temple ;  the  number  of 
"strangers"  pressed  into  the  work  of  building  the 
temple;  the  number  of  oxen  and  sheep  sacrificed  in  one 
day  in  the  third  month  of  the  fifteenth  year  of  Asa  ;  the 
number  of  sheep  and  goats  brought  to  Jehoshaphat  as 
tribute  by  the  Arabians  ;  the  number  of  soldiers  in  Jehosh- 
aphat's  standing  army  ;  the  number  of  the  warriors  of 
Judah  led  forth  by  Amaziah  to  battle  against  Edom  in 
the  valley  of  Salt;  the  size  of  Uzziah's  standing  army ; 
the  number  of  Judah's  warriors  slain  by  Pekah  of  Israel ; 
the  exact  date  of  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  in  Heze- 
kiah's  reign ;  the  number  of  sheep,  oxen,  and  goats 
sacrificed  in  connection  with  this  occasion ;  the  dates  of 
Josiah's  first  steps  toward  religious  reform ;  and  other 
similar  data,  (i)  Can  any  principle,  or  principles,  be  dis- 
covered which  will  account  for  part  or  all  of  this  statis- 
tical information  ?  or  (2)  is  it  merely  a  characteristic  of 
the  chronicler's  literary  style  ?  (3)  What  is  the  bearing 
on  this  question  of  the  fact  that  there  are  divergencies 
between  Chronicles  and  Kings  in  many  cases  where  they 
give  figures  for  the  same  event  ?  (Cf,  §  222,  (4).) 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES  21$ 

§225.  The  Literary  Style  of  Chronicles. — Consisting, 
as  it  does,  in  large  part  of  excerpts  from  earlier  sources 
which  have  been  edited  and  supplemented  by  the  editor 
of  Chronicles,  may  we  expect  to  find  the  unity  of  style 
that  is  manifest  in  a  work  that  comes  from  one  hand  ? 
Examine  lists  of  the  peculiarities  of  vocabulary  and  syn- 
tax in  Chronicles4  and  read  large  portions  of  the  book 
with  a  view  to  determining  (a)  the  style  of  the  chroni' 
cler  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  sources  he  uses ; 
(b}  the  style  of  the  chronicler  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  prophetic  narratives  in  J,  E,  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings,  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  that  of  P,  on  the  other. 
Is  the  style  seen  to  be  involved,  stiff,  prosaic,  repeti- 
tious ? 

§226.  The  Chronicler's  Selection  of  Material. — If  it 
was  not  the  aim  of  the  chronicler  to  write  a  history,  but 
to  use  history  in  such  a  way  as  to  illustrate  and  enforce 
great  ideas  which  he  wished  to  present,  should  we  not 
expect  to  find  that  he  selects  and  arranges  his  material 
with  a  view  to  his  purpose?  Note  that  (i)  he  passes  a  Chron.,  chap. 

10 ;  11:1-4; 

over  the  history  of  northern  Israel  in  silence,  except  in      chap.  13;  16:1- 

J  6;  chap.  18; 

a  few  places  where  the  intimate  relation  of  the  two  king-      30:35-37;  aa:s- 

9 ;  35 : 6-10,  17- 

doms  compels  him  to  mention   Israel;   why?   (2)  that     34:88:5-15; 

he  fails  to  mention  the  sins  of  David,  Solomon,  Heze- 

kiah,  and  others  who  were  interested  in  supporting  the 

temple  and  its  worship  ;  why  ?  (3)  that  he  emphasizes  i  chron.,  chaps. 

15-17;  21 : 18 — 

the  activities  of  these  kings  in  behalf  of  the  temple  and      39:aa;aChron. 

chaps.  1-7 ;  17 : 
priesthood  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  them  appear      1-9;    19:4-"; 

,.,.,.  34 : 4-16 ;  chaps 

more  like  priests  than  kings;  why?  (4)  that  he  assigns      39-31534:1— 

*"  35:19;  etc. 

the  priests  an  essential  part  in  the  battle-array;  why  ? 

(5)  that  the  religious  institutions  are  given  an  exceedingly  i  Chron.  13:12. 
large  place  as  compared  with  the  books  of  Samuel  and   i  Chron.  6:1-81; 

9 : 10-34  >  chaps. 

Kings.     What  light  do  these  and  other  similar  facts  shed      33-36;  a  curon 

35 '.  1-19  (ff. 

upon  the  nature  of  the  purpose  of  Chronicles?     Is  it     a  kings 

33:  21  ff.) ; 
not    a    church    history    rather   than    a    history    of    the      chaps.  39-31  («•/. 

,     J  aKingsi8:4). 

nation  ? 

§227.  The     Religion    of    the    Chronicler.— Note   (i)  3  ™ra0?5'38::ia:f.; 

that   the    Priestly  Code   serves  as  the  standard    in    all      « -^ '12-36 j6" 

etc. 

<See,  e.  g.,  DRIVER,  Introduction,  etc.,  pp.  535-40;   FR.  BROWN,  HASTINGS'S 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I,  pp.  389  ff. 


214 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


i  Chi  on.  3i  :s; 
3  Chron.  17: 14-19; 

35:5;  s6:nif.; 

ii :  i. 


3  Chron.  37:6; 

33:11-13; 

31:31 ;  13:11; 

17:4*.;  36:  5 
i  Chron.  10: 131.; 

a  Chron.  35:30; 

24:34!.;  28:  5 

ff.,ig;  26:  i6tt. ; 

3i :  13  ff. 
3  Chron.  13:15, 

18;  26:5;  16:7, 

13. 

1  Chron.  38; 9; 

3  Chron.  14 :  n ; 
5 : 33,  26 ;  16 :  g. 

2  Chron.  30:9, 
i8f. 

2  Chron.  30:19. 


2  Chron.,  chaps. 
23-38;  3  Chron., 
chaps.  3,  4- 


x  Chron.  14:17;  3 
Chron.  i :  14-17; 
17:10-19;  33: 
23,  37-31. 


See, e.g.,  i  Chron., 
chaps.  13,  15, 
16,  17;  2i :  18— 
29:22. 

3  Chron.  7:  5;  13: 
3;  17: 10-19;  35: 
11-13;  27:6,  8; 
etc. 

2  Chron.  8:2; 
21 : 12  (cf. 
3  Kings  3:11; 
8:16). 


matters  of  ritual  and  worship  ;  (2)  that  the  most  religious 
kings  are  represented  as  the  mightiest,  David  having 
more  than  a  million  and  a  half  of  soldiers,  Jehoshaphat 
over  a  million,  Asa  more  than  half  a  million,  Amaziah 
and  Uzziah  only  300,000,  Rehoboam  only  180,000;  (3) 
that  prosperity  is  declared  to  be  due  to  faithfulness  to 
Jehovah  and  his  worship  as  conducted  at  the  temple  ; 
(4)  that  disaster  is  declared  to  be  due  to  sin  in  abandon- 
ing Jehovah  or  his  worship  ;  (5)  that  Jehovah  is  the  only 
and  all-sufficient  source  of  help  and  deliverance  ;  (6) 
that  Jehovah  is  omnipotent  and  omniscient ;  (7)  that 
Jehovah  is  merciful  and  good,  ever  ready  to  pardon  the 
penitent ;  (8)  that,  though  great  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
ritual,  the  spirit  of  an  act  is  recognized  as  more  impor- 
tant than  the  form. 

§228.  The  Idealistic  Character  of  Chronicles. —  Recall 
(i)  that  there  is  silence  as  to  the  great  sins  of  David  and 
other  religious  leaders  (see  §  222  (3)) ;  (2)  that  the  Mo- 
saic system  as  it  existed  in  the  chronicler's  day  is  repre- 
sented as  in  full  operation  in  the  times  of  David  and 
Solomon  ;  (3)  that  the  splendor  and  power  of  the  king- 
dom in  the  days  of  David,  Solomon,  Jehoshaphat,  Heze- 
kiah,  and  others  are  rather  a  reflection  of  the  greatness 
of  the  Persian  empire,  with  which  the  chronicler  was 
familiar,  than  a  representation  of  the  actual  state  of 
affairs  ;  (4)  that  a  disproportionate  prominence  is  given 
to  matters  of  temple  and  ritual  in  the  early  days  of  the 
kingdom  ;  (5)  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  extraordi- 
narily large  numbers  in  calculations  and  estimates  ;  (6) 
that  occasionally  he  changes  the  natural  course  of  histori- 
cal events,  e.  g.,  representing  Hiram  of  Tyre  as  giving 
cities  to  Solomon,  though  the  book  of  Kings  states  that 
the  cities  were  given  to  Hiram  by  Solomon  in  payment  for 
assistance  rendered  by  Hiram  in  the  work  of  building  the 
temple  ;  and  Elijah  as  writing  a  message  to  King  Jeho- 
ram,  although  Elijah  had  been  dead  for  some  time.  How 
may  these  things  be  most  satisfactorily  explained  ?  Are 
they  due  merely  to  a  lack  of  historical  perspective  ?  Can 
they  be  accounted  for  as  necessary  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  chronicler's  purpose  ?  Is  there  a  sense  in  which 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES  21$ 

they  represent  a  larger  truth  than  could  be  imparted  by  a 
statement  of  bare  fact  ?     In  other  words,  can  these  rep- 
resentations be  regarded  as  ideally  true,  if  not  literally  ? 
§  229.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

EWALD,  History  of  Israel  (1843,  3<i  e<i.  1864,  transl.  1883),  Vol.  I,  pp.  169  ff.; 
C.  F.  KEIL,  The  Books  of  Chronicles  (1870,  transl.  1872);  ZOCKLER-MURPHY,  The 
Books  of  Ch ronides  (LANGE'S  "Commentary,"  1874);  W.  R.  SMITH,  art.  " Chronicles,' 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1876) ;  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel 
(1878,  5th  ed.  1899,  transl.  1885),  pp.  171-227;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church  (1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  140  ff.,  182  ff.;  BALL,  Chronicles  (ELLICOTT'S 
"Commentary  for  English  Readers,"  1883) ;  WILDEBOER,  Origin  of  the  Canon  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1891,  transl.  1895),  see  Index;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891,  6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  516-40;  KITTEL,  History 
of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II  (1892,  transl.  1896),  pp.  224-9 ;  J.  ROBERTSON,  Book  by  Book 
(1892),  pp.  111-19;  JENNINGS,  "Chronicles,"  The  Thinker,  July,  Sept.,  Nov.,  1892; 
RYLE,  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  (1892),  pp.  138!.,  145,  151,  162;  MONTEFIORE, 
The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("  Hibbert  Lectures,"  1892),  pp.  447  ff.,  454,  483; 
RENAN,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  from  the  Rule  of  the  Persians  to  That  of  the 
Greeks  (1893,  transl.  1895),  pp.  151  ff.;  W.  H.  BENNETT,  The  Books  of  Chronicles 
("Expositor's  Bible,"  1894);  GIRDLESTONE,  Deuttrographs  (1894),  passim;  DRIVER, 
"The  Speeches  in  Chronicles,"  Expositor,  Apr.  and  Oct.,  1895;  G.  B.  GRAY,  Studies 
in  Hebrew  Proper  Names  (1896),  chap,  iii;  KAUTZSCH,  An  Outline  of  the  History  of  the 
Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1896,  transl.  1899),  pp.  I2I-8;  W.  E.  BARNES,  "The 
Religious  Standpoint  of  the  Chronicler,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and 
Literatures,  Vol.  XIII  (1896-97),  pp.  14-20;  IDEM,  An  Apparatus  Criticus  to  Chroni- 
cles in  the  Peshitta  Version  (1897)  ;  IDEM,  "Chronicles  a  Targum,"  Expository  Times, 
Vol.  VIII  (1897),  pp.  316  f.;  CROCKETT,  A  Harmony  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chroni- 
cles  (1897);  FR.  BROWN,  art.  "Chronicles,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I 
(1898);  T.  K.  CHEYKE,  Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile  (1898),  see  Index;  T. 
G.  SOARES,  "  The  Import  of  the  Chronicles  as  a  Piece  of  Religio-Historical  Litera- 
ture," American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  Ill  (1899),  pp.  251-74;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND 
S.  R.  DRIVER,  art.  "Books  of  Chronicles,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I  (1899);  C.  F. 
KENT,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian,  and  Greek  Periods 
(1899),  pp.  101  ff.;  BARNES,  The  Books  of  Chronicles  ("Cambridge  Bible,"  1899); 
BEECHER,  "Is  the  Chronicler  a  Veracious  Historian  for  the  Post-Exilian  Period?" 
Bible  Student,  Oct.,  1899,  Jan.  and  Feb.,  1900;  HOWLETT,  "  Wellhausen  and  the 
Chronicler,"  Dublin  Review,  Apr.,  1900;  MACMILLAN,  "The  Date  of  Chronicles," 
Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Review,  July,  1900;  J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of 
the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  Historians  (1901),  pp.  270-85  ;  R.  SOMERVELL,  "The  His- 
torical Character  of  the  Old  Testament  Narratives,"  Expository  Times,  April,  1902, 
pp.  298-302. 

DE  WETTE,  Kritischer  Versuch  iiber  die  Glaubwiirdigkeit  d.  Chron.  ("Beitrage," 
Vol.  I  (1806));  C.  P.  W.  GRAMBERG,  Die  Chronik  nach  ihrem  geschichtlichen  Charak- 
ter  und  ihrer  Glaubwiirdigkeit  gepriift  (1823);  C.  F.  Kfi[L,  Apologetischer  Versuch 
iiber  die  Biicher  der  Chronik  (1833);  MOVERS,  Kritische  Untersuchungen  iiber  die 
bibl.  Chron.  (1834);  E.  BERTHEAU,  Die  Biicher  der  Chronik  ("  Kurzgefasstes  exege- 
tisches  Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1854,  ad  ed.  1873 ;  3d  ed.  by  Ryssel,  1887) ; 


2l6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

KUENEN,  Historisch-kritisch  Onderzoek  (1861,  2d  ed.  1887),  §§28-32;  GRAF,  Die 
geschichtlichen  Biicher  des  Alten  Testaments  (1866),  pp.  114-247  ;  DE  WETTE-SCHRA- 
DER,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1869),  §§  224-33 »  WELLHAUSEN,  De  gentibus 
et  familiis  Judaeis  quae  i  Ch.  a — 4  enumerantur  (1870);  FRANZ  DELITZSCH,  "  Die 
Formenreichtum  der  israelitischen  Geschichtsliteratur,"  Zeitschrift  fur  lutherische 
Theologie  und  Kirche,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1870),  pp.  31  ff. ;  L.  DiESTEL,  "Die  hebraische 
Geschichtsschreibung,"  Jahrbiicher  fur  deutsche  Theologie,  Vol.  XVIII  (1873),  pp. 
365  ff.;  OETTLI,  Die  Biicher  der  Chronik  ("  Kurzgefasster  exegetischer  Kommentar  zum 
Alten  Testament,"  1889);  RIEHM,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament,  Vol.  II  (1890), 
pp.  316-28;  CORNILL,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891,  2d  ed.  1896),  §  46; 
BUDDE,  "  Vermutungen  zum  '  Midrasch '  des  Buches  der  Konige,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die 
alttest.  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XII  (1892),  pp.  37  ff. ;  H.  WINCKLER,  Alttestamentliche 
Untersuchungen  (1892),  pp.  157-67  ( =  "  Bemerkungen  zur  Chronik  als  Geschichts- 
quelle");  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1893),  pp.  269-76;  WILDEBOER, 
De  Letterkunde  des  Ouden  Verbonds  naar  de  Tijdsorde  van  haar  Ontstaan  (1893; 
German  transl.  1895),  pp.  404-20;  KLOSTERMANN,  art.  "  Chronik,"  Realencyklopadie 
fur  prot.  Theologie  und  Kircke,\o\.  IV  (3d  ed.  1898);  BENZINGER,  Die  Biicher  der 
Chronik  (" Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament"  (1901);  BAUDISSIN, Ein- 
leitung in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes  (1901),  pp.  266-78 ;  ROTHSTEIN,  Die 
Genealogie  des  Kbnigs  Jojachim  und  seiner  Nachkommen  (/  Chron.  3: 17-24)  in 
geschichtlicher  Beleuchtung  (1902). 

§230.  Constructive  Work. 

1.  Make  a  minute  comparison  of  2  Chron.  2:  i — 9:31  with  i  Kings 
5:1 — 11:43,  and   (i)  classify  the  variations  which  are   found;    (2) 
explain  the  motive  which  may  have  led  to  the  making  of  the  change. 

2.  Make  a  similar  comparison  of  the  psalms  found  in  i  Chron. 
16:8-36  with  the  form  of  these  same  psalms  as  they  occur   in  the 
Psalter,  viz.,  Pss.  105: 1-15  ;  96: 1-13  ;  106:  i,  47  f. 

3.  Study  the  classification  of   the  sources  of  Chronicles    as  pre- 
sented by  Driver,  viz.:  (i)  the  canonical  books  from  Genesis  to  Kings; 

(2)  the  "book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,"  which  included  the 
prophetic  writings  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  20:34;  32:32  ;  33:19,  and 
possibly  those  mentioned  in  i  Chron.  29:29;  2  Chron.  9:29;  12:15; 

(3)  the  "acts  of  Uzziah,"   2  Chron.  26:22;  (4)  the  "  midrash  of  the 
prophet  Iddo,"  2  Chron.  13:22;  and  (5)  the  "  midrash  of  the  book  of 
the  kings"  (2  Chron.  24:27),  unless  this  be  identical  with  (2). 

4.  Study  the  classification  of  sources  as  given  by  Kautzsch,  viz.: 
(i)  excerpts  from  canonical  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  :  i  Chron., 
chaps.  1-9;  10: 1-12;  u :  1-9;  14:  1—17;  16  : 43 — 17  :  27;  2  Chron.  1:13 
—3:1;    5:2-10;   5:13/5 — 6:12;    6:14-39;   7:4,  5»7»8;  7:17—8:1; 
8:6-u0/   9:1-28:    9:30 — 11:4;   12:20,  9^-11,  13/5,-   12:15^ — 13:2; 
13:230/15:16-18;  18:3-34;  21:1;  24:1-20;  24:27/5 — 25:4;  25:17- 
200,  21-26;    25:27^ — 26:4;   27:1-20,  30,-  28:1-20,  3,  4;    29:1,  2; 
32: 33^ — 33:9 ;  34:  i,  2  ;  (2)  similar  excerpts  which  were  edited  by  the 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES  2I/ 

chronicler:  i  Chron.  13:1-14;  15:25-29;  18:  i — 21:27;  2  Chron. 
1:7-12;  3:2 — 5:1;  7:11-16;  8:17  f.;  16:  ib-6  ;  20:31-330,-  21:5- 
100/24:4-14;  26:21-23;  27:7-9;  32:9-21;  32:24;  33:20-25; 
34:8-320,-  35:18  f.,  zob;  35:26 — 36:60,-  36:8^-120,-  (3)  contribu- 
tions of  the  chronicler  himself  and  older  sources  which  were  thor- 
oughly worked  over  by  him  into  conformity  with  his  own  point  of  view: 

1  Chron.  10: 13  f.;  ii :  10 — 12:  40  ;  15:  1-24;   16:1-42;   21:28 — 29:30; 

2  Chron.  i:  1-6;  5:11-130;  6:13;  6:40—7:3;  7:6,  91.;  8:2-5,  n£- 
16  ;  9:29;  11:5— 12:1  ;  12:2^-90,  12,  130,  14,  150,-   13:3-22;   13:23^ 
— 15:15;  15:19 — 16  :  10,-   16:7 — 18:2;   19:1 — 20:30;  20:33^-37; 
21:2-4;   2i:iob — 23:21524:2^,3,15-270,-  25:5-16,20^,270,-  26:5- 
20;  27:2^,3/5-6;  28:2/5,  5-25;  29:3—32:8;  32:  22  f.,  25-33;,-  33:io-i9; 
34:3-7;  34:32<*—35:i7;  35  =  200,21-25;  36:6^-80,12^-23. 

5.  Prepare  an  outline  statement  in  which  you  will  embody  the 
principal  propositions  (perhaps  six  or  eight)  which  seem  to  hold  good 
concerning  the  contents,  style,  date,  and  character  of  the  books  of 
Chronicles. 

§231.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Take  up  the  question  of  genealogies  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
consider    (i)  the  extent  to  which  they  appear;   (2)  the  form  in  which 
they  are  given ;   (3)  the  purpose,  in   each  case,  of  the  insertion  ;   (4) 
the  accuracy  of  the  representation;   (5)  similar  usage  in  other  Semitic 
literatures,  especially  Arabic. 

See,  e.  g.,  E.  L.  CURTIS,  article  "  Genealogy,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible;  W.  R.  SMITH,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,  chap,  i ;  S.  A.  COOK, 
article  "Genealogies,"  Encyc.  Biblica;  GUTHE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  2-6; 
WELLHAUSEN,  De  gentibus  et  familiis  Judaeis  quae  i  Ch.  2-4  enumerantur;  M. 
BERLIN,  "Gershonite  and  Merarite  Genealogies,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol. 
XII  (1900),  pp.  291  ff.;  MCLENNAN,  Studies  in  Ancient  History,  2d  series,  chap.  9 
( = "  Examples  of  Fabricated  Genealogies" ) ;  G.  B.  GRAY,  Studies  in  Hebrew 
Proper  Names,  chap,  iii ;  SMEND,  Die  Listen  der  Biicher  Esra  und  Nehemia. 

2.  Consider  the  question  of  numbers  in  Chronicles,  including  (i)  the 
variations  between  Chronicles  and  the  prophetic  histories  of  Samuel 
and  Kings ;  (2)  the  motive  for  insertion ;  (3)  the  method  of  represen- 
tation ;  (4)  the  general  accuracy. 

See,  e.  g.,  FRANCIS  BROWN,  article  "  Chronicles,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  Vol.  I,  p.  394 ;  T.  G.  SCARES,  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
264  f.;  BENZINGER,  Chronik,  p.  ix. 

3.  Take  up  for  study  the  lost  books  of  Scripture  which  are  cited  in 
Chronicles,  and  in  connection  with  these  (i)  other  lost  books  cited 
elsewhere  in  Scripture,  e.  g.,  the  book  of  Jashar ;  (2)  the  character,  in 
general,  of  these  books ;  (3)  the  relation  of  these  books  to  the  canoni- 
cal books. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

HISTORICAL    LITERATURE  —  THE    BOOKS    OF    EZRA    AND    NEHEMIAH. 

§232.   The  Scope  of  the  History  in  Ezra-Nehemiah. — 

Ezraxn-4.  Note  that  the  narrative  in  these  books  (i)  begins  with 

the  decree  of  Cyrus  permitting  the  exiled  Jews  to  return 

Neb.  13:6-30.  from  Babylon;  (2)  closes  with  an  account  of  the  activi- 
ties of  Nehemiah  during  his  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  ; 
(3)  covers  a  period,  therefore,  of  about  one  hundred 
years ;  and  (4)  that  comparatively  few  of  the  events 
and  movements  belonging  to  this  period  are  treated  in 
the  history,  much  being  passed  over  in  silence. 

Bzrax:s-xx;  a:x-  Observe  the  order  of  presentation  :  (i)  The  account 
of  the  return  gives  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  a  statement  about 
the  gifts  sent  to  the  temple,  and  a  long  list  of  the  names 
of  the  returning  exiles ;  nothing  being  said  of  the  journey 

Ezra  3:1—  4:34.  itself.  Then  follows  (2)  the  account  of  the  building  of 
an  altar  to  Jehovah  and  of  the  attempt  to  rebuild  the 
temple ;  with  (3)  the  story  of  the  successful  opposition 

Ezra  5: 1-6: aa.  of  the  enemies  of  the  Jews.  (4)  The  next  section 
describes  (a)  the  renewed  effort  to  build  the  temple, 
under  the  leadership  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah;  (b)  the 
renewed  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  enemy  and  the 
resulting  correspondence  with  Darius ;  (c)  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work,  and  the  festivities  connected  with  the 

Bzra7:x-8:36.  dedication  of  the  restored  temple.  Then  (5),  passing 
over  in  silence  a  period  of  about  sixty  years,  the  historian 
gives  the  story  of  Ezra's  visit  to  Jerusalem,  including  the 
letter  of  authority  given  to  him  by  Artaxerxes,  a  list  of 
the  names  of  all  who  accompanied  Ezra,  and  a  list  of 
the  presents  sent  up  from  Babylon  for  the  temple.  (6) 
!— 10:44.  The  last  section  of  the  book  of  Ezra  deals  with  Ezra's 
efforts  to  put  a  stop  to  the  marriages  of  Jews  with  for- 
eigners, and  gives  much  space  to  Ezra's  prayer  in  refer- 
ence to  this  subject,  and  to  a  list  of  the  names  of  those 
who  had  married  foreign  wives. 
218 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH  2IQ 

Notice  that  the  book  of  Nehemiah  (i)  opens  with   Neh.  1:1-3:8. 
the  account  of  Nehemiah's  purpose  to  visit  Jerusalem, 
and  his  success  in  securing  the  sanction  and  the  support 
of  Artaxerxes  the  king.    Then  follows  (2)  the  narrative  of  Neh.  3:9-00. 
Nehemiah's  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  his  tour  of  inspection 
made  under  cover  of  darkness,  and  his  success  in  arousing 
the  citizens  to  repair  the  walls  of  the  city.    (3)  At  this  point  Neh.  3:1-33. 
is  inserted  a  list  of  those  who  engaged  in  the  work,  with 
careful  indication  of  the  special  portion  performed  by  each 
family  or  group ;  together  with  a  description  of  the  efforts 
of  the  Samaritans  to  hinder  the  work  and  the  measures  Neh.  4:1-23. 
taken  by  Nehemiah  to  bring  the  plans  of  the  Samaritans 
to  nought.      Thereupon    (4)   comes   a  digression   con-   Neh.  5:1-19. 
cerning  Nehemiah's  championship  of  the  cause  of  the 
oppressed  debtors  among  the  Jews,  and  his  own  policy  of 
refraining  from  levying  upon  the  people  for  his  support 
as  former  governors  had  done.     (5)  The  story  of  the  Neh.  6:1—7:4. 
building  of  the  walls  is  then  continued  by  a  recital  of 
various  conspiracies  made  by  the  Samaritans  against  the 
life  and  the  influence  of  Nehemiah  until  the  work  of 
building  was   completed    and    the   city   was    properly 

guarded.     (6)  A  list  of  those  who  had  returned  from  Neh.  7:5-73;  </. 

Ezra  « :  1-70. 

exile  is  next  included,  this  list  being  a  duplicate  of  one 
given  in  Ezra.     Upon  this  list  follows  (7)  the  account  of  Neh.  8:1-9:38. 
Ezra's  introduction  of  the  law  and  of  its  adoption  by 
the  people  in  public  assembly.     Then  comes  (8)  a  list  Neh.  10:1-37;  10: 
of  those  who  signed  the  new  covenant  and  an  account  of 
the  terms  of  the  covenant  itself,  with  still  other  lists  of  Neh.n:x-i3:36. 
names.     (9)  A  description  of  the  ceremonies  in  connec-  Neh.  12:37-43. 
tion  with  the  dedication  of  the  wall  is  then  given.     (10) 
To  this  are  subjoined  brief  statements  concerning  the  Neh.  13:44—13:3. 
provision  made  by  Nehemiah  for  the  support  of  the  tem- 
ple ministry  and  concerning  the  expulsion  of  foreigners. 
The  narrative  closes  (n)  with  the  reforms  in  the  inter-  Neh.  13:4-31- 
ests  of  the  temple  and  its  ministry,  sabbath  observance, 
and  the  prohibition  of  mixed  marriages,  carried  through 
by  Nehemiah  after  his  return  from  a  visit  to  Babylon. 

§  233.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement,  based  upon  a  study 
of  the  foregoing  outline  of  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  concern- 
ing the  purpose  of  these  narratives,  as  it  appears  (a)  in  the  kind  of 


220  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

matter  selected  for  treatment ;  (b)  in  the  relative  amount  of  prominence 
given  to  the  various  subjects ;  (c)  in  the  places  assigned  respectively  to 
Ezra  and  to  Nehemiah. 

§  234.  The  Unity  of  the  Books  of  Ezra-Nehemiah. — 
Consider  the  following  facts:  (i)  Some  most  ancient 
Jewish  and  early  Christian  writers  speak  of  the  book  of 
Ezra  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  they  include  with 
it  the  present  book  of  Nehemiah.1  (2)  The  old  Jewish 
commentators,  e.  g.,  Rashi  and  Aben  Ezra,  pass  from 
Ezra  10:44  to  Neh.  1:1  without  any  break  such  as  is 
customary  in  passing  from  one  book  to  another.  (3) 
The  Massoretic  notes  attached  to  each  book  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  are  not  found  at  the  close  of  Ezra,  but  do 
appear  at  the  end  of  Nehemiah,  and  there  give  facts 
showing  that  the  Massoretes  regarded  Ezra-Nehemiah  as 
one  book  ;  e.  g.,  they  declare  Neh.  3  :  12  to  be  the  middle 
verse  of  this  book.  (4)  The  sections  into  which  the 
Hebrew  text  was  divided  by  the  Massoretes  for  use  in 
the  synagogue  service  show  that  they  thought  of  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  as  a  single  book,  one  section  being  Ezra  8  :  35 
—  Neh.  2:1.  (5)  The  two  books  are  united  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  translation. 

§235.  Constructive  Work. —  In  the  light  of  these  facts,  and  the 
additional  fact  that  the  two  books  treat  the  same  period,  are  concerned 
with  the  same  general  problems,  and  furnish  much  evidence  pointing 
to  their  having  been  edited  by  the  same  hand,  formulate  an  extended 
answer  to  the  question  :  Shall  we  consider  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  now  treated  separately,  as  a  single  literary  production  ? 
See  especially  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  ("  Cambridge  Bible"),  pp.  i-xiii. 

§236.  The  Unity  of  Chronicles  and  Ezra-Nehemiah. — 
2  Chron.  36 : 22  f . ;  What  is  the  significance  of  the  following  facts  ?  (i)  The 
closing  verses  of  Chronicles  are  repeated  at  the  opening 
of  the  book  of  Ezra.  (2)  Both  works  are  compilations 
from  various  sources  (see  §§  221,  228).  (3)  Both  give 
especial  prominence  to  genealogical  lists  (see  §§223; 
230,  (i)).  (4)  The  two  works  greatly  resemble  each 
other  in  general  literary  style  and  in  their  vocabulary 
(see  §§  225  ;  230,  (4)).  (5)  The  two  exhibit  the  same 
absorbing  interest  in  matters  relating  to  the  temple  and 

xSo,  e.  £.,  Talmud,  Baba  bathra,  folio  14,  c.  2;  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis  (ca.  180 
A.  D.),  cited  in  EUSEBIUS,  Hist.  Ecdes.,  IV,  26. 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH  221 

its  service;  e.g.,  (a)  great  prominence  is  given  to  the  Bzraai-s-ia; 
Levites,  who  are  mentioned   more  than  sixty  times  in  cf.  Chrbn. 
Ezra-Nehemiah  and  about  one  hundred  times  in  Chroni- 
cles; (b}  in  both  the  musical  service  is  emphasized;  (c)  Bzraaiiof.; 

'    v  '       Neh.  ia : 27,  36, 

in  both  prayer  is  highly  esteemed,  and  hence  is  frequently      4&;  </•  Chron. 
placed  in    the   mouths  of    Israel's   great    leaders;    (</)      Neh  1:4;  4:9; 

religious  festivals  and  ceremonies  are  described  in  detail   Ezra 6: 19-22, 

Neh.  12 : 27-43 , 
by  both  ;  (e)  the  porters  are  mentioned  as  a  part  of  the      c/.aChron., 

J  5 :  i—7 : 10. 

temple    staff    nowhere  except    in    Ezra-Nehemiah   and  Ezra  2 :42 ;  Neh. 

ia :  as,  45, 47 ; 
Chronicles,  in  which  books  they  are  often  so  spoken  of;      </•  Chron. 

(/)  the  Nethinim,  mentioned  frequently  in  Ezra-Nehe-   Bzra7:7;  8:17; 

miah,  are  mentioned  in  no  other  book  except  Chronicles;      B>:at;V.' 

(6)  Ezra-Nehemiah  and  Chronicles  come  from  the  same 

period  (see  §§220,  227);    (7)  Ezra-Nehemiah  takes  up 

the  history  at  the  point  where  it  stops  in  Chronicles  and 

continues  it  until  the  building  of  the  second  temple  is 

narrated,  the  two  books,  Chronicles  and  Ezra-Nehemiah, 

thus  constituting  a  history  of  the  temple  and  its  worship 

from  the  time  of  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple  until 

the   restoration    of  worship   in    the    days    of  Ezra   and 

Nehemiah. 

See,  e.  g.,  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  pp.  xxvi  ff.;  REUSS,  Das 
Alte  Testament,  pp.  8  ff.;  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament,  p. 
285;  DRIVER,  Introduction,  etc.,  pp.  516  f.;  SAYCE,  Introduction  to 
Ezra,  Nehemiah  and  Esther,  pp.  29  f.;  cf.  Higher  Criticism  and  the 
Verdict  of  the  Monuments,  pp.  537  f.,  548. 

§237.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  discussing  the 
explanation  of  these  facts,  whether  (i)  by  the  supposition  that  the  two 
editors,  working  in  the  same  period  and  upon  the  same  subjects  and 
with  the  same  interests,  used  the  same  methods  and  arrived  at  similar 
results ;  or  (2)  by  the  supposition  that  the  two  books  are  really  one, 
being  the  product  of  the  same  editor's  labors. 

§  238.  The  Date  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  (cf.  §220). —  Note 
(i)  the  use  of  the  expression  "the  days  of  Nehemiah;"   Neh.  12:36,47. 
does  the  writer  not  seem  to  regard  these  days  as  long 
past?  (2)  the  use  of  the  title  "king  of  Persia,"  in  view  Ezrai:rf.,8; 

3:7;  4:3,  5,  7, 

of  the  fact  that  contemporary  sources  when  speaking  of     34;  6:14;  7:1. 

Persian  monarchs  use  simply  "the  king;"  does  not  this  Hag.  1:1,15; 

r, '  Zech.  7:1;  Ezra 

suggest  that  the  Persian  dominion  was  a  thing  of  the      7=271.;  8:1,33, 

35, 36 ;  Neh. 
past  in  the  writer's  time?  the  words  "of  Persia"  would      x:xi;a:i«.; 

be  superfluous  while  the  Persian   empire  was  supreme,      13:6. 


222  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Neh.  ia:jof.,  aa;  but  entirely  appropriate   after  its   overthrow;    (3)    the 
josephus,  AH-    reference   to  Jaddua,  the  high-priest,  who  lived  three 

tiguities,  XI, 

vfi,  8.  generations  later  than  Ehashib,  the  contemporary  of 

Nehemiah  ;  this  points  to  a  time  as  late  as  the  days 
of  Alexander  the  Great  for  Jaddua,  and  the  phrase 
"  the  days  of  Jaddua,"  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 

Neh.  12:22.  priesthood  of  Jaddua  was  now  long  past;  (4)  the  refer- 

ence to  "  the  reign  of  Darius,  the  Persian,"  as  a  period 
some  time  past;  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  king 
referred  to  is  Darius  Codomannus,  336-332'  B.  C.;  (5) 

Neh.  12:33.  the  reference  to  "the  book  of  the  chronicles"  which  is 

said  to  have  contained  the  register  of  the  Levites  as  far 
down  as  the  high-priesthood  of  Johanan,  the  son  of 

Ezra  4:  6-33;          Eliashib;  (6)  the  treatment  of  the  sources,  which  is  such 
7:1-10;  etc. 

as  no  contemporary  historian  would  have  ventured  (cf. 

§229). 

§239.  Constructive  Work.  —  Discuss  the  significance  of  the  preced- 
ing facts;  and  determine  whether  they  point  (i)  to  the  work  of  a  later 
editor,  who  inserted  all  these  allusions  to  late  history  in  a  book  that 
had  been  written  at  an  earlier  period,  or  (2)  to  the  probability  that 
the  book  as  a  whole  was  not  compiled  and  edited  until  a  time  some- 
where about  300  B.  C. 

See,  e.  g.,  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  pp.  xxiii  ff.;  DRIVER,  Introduction,  etc., 
p.  545  ;  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alien  Testaments,  pp.  266  ff. 

§240.  The  Sources  of  Ezra-Nehemiah.  —  In  support  of 

the  position  that  Ezra-Nehemiah  is  the  work  of  an  editor 

who  compiled  largely  from  existing  sources,  consider  (i) 

Ezra  a:  i  ;  5:1;      the  many  cases  of  abrupt  transition  from  one  topic  or 

i-i;  7-736;    '  incident  to  another,  an  abruptness  which  is  natural  in  a 

12  *  27  *    13  *  4 

work  made  up  of  extracts  from  older  works  placed  side  by 
side,  but  hard  to  account  for  in  a  work  all  of  which  origi- 
nated from  the  same  hand  ;  (2)  the  frequent  change  from 
the  third  to  the  first  person,  and  vice  versa,  in  closely 
related  sections  of  the  work,  without  any  indication  of 
Ezra4:8—  6:x8;  reason  for  the  change;  (3)  the  presence  of  two  large  sec- 

7:  13-36.  , 

tions  written  in  Aramaic,  without  any  apparent  reason  for 

Neb.  7:6-73;  ii  :    the  change  of  speech  ;  (4)  the  presence  of  lists  of  names 

which  have  no  close  connection  with  the   context   to 


arajsrs;      which  they  belong  ;  (5)  the  use  of  important  names  in 
Heh.  i'a:aa,  s'a.     such  a  way  as  to  imply  that  they  had  occurred  in  some 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH  223 

previous  context  from  which  they  are  now  severed;  (6) 
the  marked  differences  in  style  and  language  appearing 
in  various  parts  of  the  narrative  ;  (7)  the  fact  that  all  the 
other  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  com- 
pilations; for  the  book  of  Chronicles  especially  see 
§  221;  (8)  the  allusion  to  the  "books  of  the  chronicles,"  Neh.  13:23. 
apparently  a  temple-register  from  which  the  editor 
obtained  some  materials. 

As  materials  which  the  editor  seems  to  have  derived 
from   earlier   sources  may  be  noted   (i)  the  decree  of  Ezra  1:1-4. 
Cyrus  permitting  the  exiles  to  return  home;    (2)   the  Ezra  4 : 7-16 ;  4 : 

17-24 ;  5 :  i — 

Aramaic  sections  containing  (a)  the  letter  sent  by  the      6:18;  7:12-26. 

Jews'  enemies  to  Artaxerxes;    (b)  the  king's  reply;  (c) 

the  account  of  the  building  of  the  temple  in  the  days  of 

Haggai  and  Zechariah,  with  certain  letters  that  passed 

between  Jerusalem   and   Babylon   with  reference  to  it; 

(d)  the  firman  of  Artaxerxes  endowing  Ezra  with  such 

authority  as  he  desired;  (3)  various  lists,  including  (a)  Ezra  1:9-11; 

J  w/  I    .  Ezra2:i-7oand 

the  vessels  of  the  temple;  (o\  the  Jews  who  came  back      Neh. 7  =  6-73; 

Ezra  10 : 20-44  j 

from  exile  with  Zerubbabel ;  m  the  men  who  married      Neh.,  chap.  3; 

10: 1-27;  ii  13- 

foreign  wives;    (</)    the  builders  of  the  wall;    (c)  the     36:12:1-26. 

signers  of  the  covenant ;  (/)  the  dwellers  in  Jerusalem 

and  in  other  cities  ;  (g)  the  priests  and  Levites  ;  (4)  the  Neh.  7:733— 

account  of  the  adoption  of  the  law  and  the  new  covenant 

in  the  time  of  Nehemiah ;    (5)  certain  portions  of  the  Ezra  7 127— 8:34; 

narrative  which  use  the  first  person  and  seem  to  have 

belonged  to  the  memoirs  of  Ezra;  (6)  similar  sections  Neh., chaps.  1-6; 

which  seem   to  have  been  taken  from  the  memoirs  of     43; Yl^-si.27 

Nehemiah. 

§  241.  The  Treatment  of  the  Sources  in  Ezra-Nehemiah. 
—  Consider  (i)   the  form  of  the  decree  of  Cyrus  with  Ezra  i : 2  ff. ; «/. 

6l3  ff  i 

reference  to  the  return  of  the  exiles  as  it  is  given  in  two 

different  places  in   Ezra,  and  note  the   differences   in 

phraseology  and  contents  ;  is  it  probable  that  there  were 

two  copies  of  the  decree  in  existence  differing  so  much 

as  these,  or  is  it  more  natural  to  ascribe  the  variations  to 

the  hand  of  the  editor?  (2)  the  fact  that  a  large  section  Neh., chaps. s-io; 

of  Nehemiah  appears  to  belong  to  the  memoirs  of  Ezra,      ?-io.Z 

being  closely  connected  with  them  in   the  period  with 

which  they  deal,  in  tone,  and  in  phraseology;  (3)  the  Ezra,  chaps.  4-6; 

Neh.,  chaps, 
fact  that  the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans  to  the  Jewish     4,6. 


224  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

community  is  all  crowded  together  at  the  beginning  of 
the  narrative,  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  dates  given 
show  that  this  opposition  extended  over  a  period  of 
about  eighty  years  and  grew  more  and  more  bitter  ;  (4) 
Ezraati— 3:1*,-  the  fact  that  there  are  more  than  one  hundred  variations 

cf.  Neh.  7 : 6-73. 

in  two  copies  of  the  same  genealogical  list,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, that  the  numbers  differ  oftener  than  they  agree. 
Consider  further  (5)  the  evidence  pointing  to  the 
conclusion  that  Ezra's  expedition  real \y  followed  that  of 
Nehemiah  instead  of  preceding  it,  as  the  editor's  narrative 
reads;  e.g.,  (a)  Nehemiah's  memoirs  make  no  allusion  to 
any  previous  work  of  Ezra ;  (^)  those  who  came  back  with 
Ezra  seem  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  rebuilding  of  the 
walls,  as  they  certainly  would  have  done  had  they  been 

Beh.  13:45;  cf.      present:  (c\  Ezra's  measures,  especially  with  reference  to 
Ezra,  chap.  10.  » 

intermarriage,  all  seem  more  decisive  than  those  of  Nehe- 
miah, which  have  the  appearance  of  being  tentative ;  (d) 
the  fact  that,  according  to  the  editor's  narrative,  Ezra's 
law  was  not  promulgated  until  after  the  arrival  of  Nehe- 
miah, and  that  no  explanation  of  this  long  delay  is 
Ezra 9: 9.  offered  by  the  editor;  (e)  the  fact  that  Ezra  gives  thanks 

to  Jehovah  that  the  walls  have  been  rebuilt  at  a  time 
when  Nehemiah,  the  builder  of  the  walls,  had  not  yet 
appeared  on  the  scene,  according  to  the  editor's  narrative. 
What  motive  could  have  led  to  such  a  rearrangement  of 
the  documentary  sources?  Is  it  sufficient  to  say  that  it 
was  for  the  purpose  of  giving  Ezra,  the  priest,  precedence 
over  Nehemiah,  the  layman? 

§  242.  The  Style  of  Ezra-Nehemiah. — As  indicative  of 

Ezra  chap  a;        t^ie  editor's  tastes  and  interests  note  (i )  the  large  amount 

44*Heh  3°  1-33;  °^  genealogical  material  he  incorporates  into  his  narrative, 

37^x1*3— °  a 'ae.  gi^g  lists  °f  tnose  wh°  to°k  Part  *n  tne  first  return 

from  exile,  of  those  who  helped  build  the  wall,  of  those 

Ezra  i :  10 i;         who  dwelt  in  Jerusalem,  etc.,  etc.;  (2)  the  similar  fond- 

x8?V?aa;68?a6    ness  for  statistical  statements,  as  evidenced  in  connection 

?7,'  it;  *?6&-73.  with  the  above  lists  and  on  every  other  possible  occasion  ; 

Bzrai:i;  3:1,6,    (z)  the  numerous  chronological  data  with  which  his  work 

is;4? ""7^9; 6:  abounds.      In    connection    with    these    characteristics, 

i6f!;ff»eh?i?i;  recall  the  similar  features  seen  to  have  been  character- 

eJIslV^'Ya  istic  of  the  books  of  Chronicles  (see  §§  223,  224).     Con- 

*3'.I|;I7t;9:i;  sider  (4)  the  style  of  the  editor's  own  contributions  to 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE  -  EZRA-NEHEMIAH  225 

the  work  as  distinguished  from  the  style  of  the  sources 
used  by  him. 

§243.  Constructive  Work.  —  Examine  lists  of  phrases  and  words 
peculiar  to  the  various  sources,  and  read  each  source  separately,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  order  that  its  literary  style  may  impress  itself  upon  your 
mind.  Then  treat  the  editor's  own  contribution  in  the  same  way,  and 
compare  its  style  with  that  of  the  editorial  contributions  to  the  books 
of  Chronicles,  with  a  view  to  the  light  that  may  be  thrown  by  such  a 
comparison  upon  the  question  of  the  unity  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and 
Nehemiah. 

See,  e.  g.,  RYLE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  pp.  xviii  f.,  xxviii  f.;  DRIVER,  Introduc- 
tion, etc.,  pp.  546  ff.,  553;  GEISSLER,  Die  literarische  Beziehungen  der  Esramemoiren, 
insbesondere  zur  Chronik  und  den  hexateuchischen  Quellenschriften  (1899). 

§244.  The  Religion  of  Ezra-Nehemiah.  —  If  Ezra-Nehe- 
miah  is  the  result  of  a  compiler's  work,  the  religious 
interests  of  the  compiler  must  be  looked  for  in  three 
directions:  (i)  the  nature  of  the  subjects  he  selects  for 
treatment  ;  (2)  the  relative  prominence  given  by  him  to 
various  matters  ;  (3)  the  religious  tone  of  the  material 
contributed  by  himself.  In  reference  to  (i)  it  maybe  weh.  ia  :  27-43  ; 
noted  that  the  subjects  treated  are  all  of  a  religious  char-  10. 
acter,  such  matters  as  are  not  in  themselves  distinctively 
religious  being  given  a  religious  interpretation,  e.  g., 
the  building  of  the  walls  and  the  movement  against  inter- 

marriages with  foreigners.     As  to  (2)  we  may  note  the  Bzrai:a-n;  a: 

•  -  .  68ff.;  chap.  3; 

great  prominence  given  to  the  temple  and  its  affairs,  the      Neb.  3:4-14; 

Ezra6:i6-aa; 

important  place   in  the  community  assigned  to  priests      Neh.  13:27-47; 

*  * 


<  — 

and  Levites,  and  the  large  amount  of  attention  bestowed      3:8-10,'  ia;  7-7, 

,.  ,1  ,  «-i3>  24;  8:  15- 

upon  matters  of  ritual,  descriptions  of  religious  cere-      ao;io:i8ff.; 
monies,  and  the  like.     Concerning  (3)  we  observe  the  Ezra6:i6^aa;  ' 

,  7:1-10;  8:  35  f.  ; 

priestly  interest  dominant  in  the  editors  work,  and  that      Heh.  13:44-47; 

13  •  *~3« 

the  Priestly  Code  serves  as  the  standard  in  all  matters  of 
ritual  and  worship. 

In  general,  is  there  any  appreciable  difference  be- 
tween the  religious  ideals  and  feelings  of  the  editor  of 
Ezra-Nehemiah  and  those  of  the  Chronicler  (cf.  §  227)? 
If  not,  is  not  this  a  strong  indication  of  the  unity  of 
Ezra-Nehemiah  and  Chronicles? 

§  245.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

F.  W.  SCHULZ,  Ezra,  Nehemiah   and  Esther  (LANGE's  "Commentary  on   the 
Holy  Scriptures,"  1876,  transl.  1877);  EWALD,  History  of  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1843,  3d  ed. 


226  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

1864,  transl.  1883),  pp.  169-96;  KEIL.  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah 
and  Esther  (1870,  transl.  1879);  D.  H.  HAIGK,  '  Coincidence  of  the  History  of  Ezra 
with  the  First  Part  of  the  History  of  Nehemiah,"  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archeology,  Vol.  II  (1873),  pp.  110-13;  )•  S.  BLACK,  articles  on  "Ezra"  and  "Books 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  VIII  (1878);  W.  R.  SMITH, 
The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (1881,  2d  ed.  1892),  pp.  42  f.;  GEO. 
RAWLINSON,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  ("  Pulpit  Commentary,"  1881)  ;  KUENEN,  National 
Religions  and  Universal  Religion  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1882),  pp.  323-7  (on  "Ezra 
and  the  Establishment  of  Judaism") ;  A.  H.  SAYCE,  An  Introduction  to  the  Books  of 
Ezra,  Nehemiah  and  Esther  (1885,  3d  ed.  1893);  MARCUS  DODS,  "Ezra"  and  "Nehe- 
miah," Expositor,  3d  series,  Vol.  VI  (1887),  pp.  53-64,  287-97  5  P-  H.  HUNTER,  After 
the  Exile,  Vol.  II  (1890);  G.  RAWLINSON,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Their  Lives  and  Times 
("Men  of  the  Bible  "  series,  1890);  DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old 
Testament  (ist  ed.  1891,  6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  540-54  ;  W.  F.  ADENEY,  Ezra,  Nehemiah 
and  Esther  ( 1 893);  SAYCE,  Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments  ( 1 893), 
pp.  537-53;  A.  C.  HERVEY,  "The  Chronology  of  Ezra  II  and  IV,  6-23,"  Expositor, 
June,  1893,  PP-  43I-43 '.  July.  1893,  pp.  50-63 ;  H.  E.  RYLE,  The  Books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  ("Cambridge  Bible,"  1893);  G.  S.  GOODSPEED,  "Ezra  and  Nehemiah," 
Biblical  World,  Vol.  1  (1893),  pp.  40-48,  208-19;  H.  HOWORTH,  The  Academy,  1893, 
Jan.  7,  pp.  13  f.;  Jan.  21,  p.  60;  Feb.  4,  p.  106;  Feb.  25,  pp.  174  f.;  April  15,  pp.  326  f.; 
June  17,  p.  524;  July  22,  pp.  73  f.;  Sept.  16,  pp.  233  f. ;  IDEM,  "A  Criticism  of  the 
Sources  and  Relative  Importance  and  Value  of  the  Canonical  Book  of  Ezra  and  the 
Apocryphal  Book  Known  as  Esdras  I,"  Transactions  of  the  Ninth  International  Con- 
gress of  Orientalists,  Vol.  II  (1893),  pp.  68-85;  C.  C.  TORREY,  The  Composition  and 
Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  ("  Beihefte  zur  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestament- 
liche  Wissenschaft,"  II,  1896);  KAUTZSCH,  The  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  ( 1 896, 
transl.  1899),  pp.  121-8;  J.  A.  SELBIE,  "Van  Hoonacker  on  Israel's  Return  from 
Exile,"  Expository  Times,  Vol.  VII  (1897),  pp.  71-3;  IDEM,  "Israel's  Return  from 
Exile,"  ibid.,  pp.  320-22;  IDEM,  "Ezra-Nehemiah,"  ibid.,  pp.  509-11;  IDEM,  "Kosters 
on  Israel's  Return  from  Exile,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  66-8 ;  A.  R.  S.  KENNEDY,  "  Did 
the  Jews  Return  under  Cyrus  ?"  ibid.,  Vol.  VIII  (1897),  pp.  268-71;  VAN  HOONACKER, 
"The  Return  of  the  Jews  under  Cyrus,"  ibid.,  Vol.  VIII  (1897),  pp.  351-4  ;  CHEYNE, 
Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile  (1898),  pp.  36-81;  IDEM,  "The  Times  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  238-50;  N.  SCHMIDT,  "Nehe- 
miah and  His  Work,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  329-43 ;  L.  W.  BATTEN,  art.  "Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II  (1899);  C.  F.  KENT,  A 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian  and  Greek  Periods  (1899), 
pp.  126-36, 167-214 ;  J.  O.  BOYD,  "  The  Documents  of  the  Book  of  Ezra,"  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Review,  1900,  pp.  414-37;  J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of  the  Pro- 
phetic  and  Priestly  Historians  (1901),  pp.  314-34  ;  CHEYNE,  "From  Isaiah  to  Ezra," 
American  Journal  of  Theology,  1901,  pp.  433-41;  KOSTERS  AND  CHEYNE,  art.  "E-ra- 
Nehemiah,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901) ;  GUTHE  AND  BATTEN,  The  Books  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  —  Critical  Edition  of  the  Hebrew  Text,  etc.  ("  Polychrome  Bible," 
1901);  J.  W.  HARPER,  The  Books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah  and  Esther  ("The  Temple 
Bible,"  1902). 

KLEINERT,  in  Beitrage  zu  den  theologischen  Wissenschaften  von  den  Professoren 
zu  Dorpat,  Band  I  (1832),  pp.  1-304  (on  origin,  structure,  and  date  of  Ezra-Nehe- 
miah) ;  KEIL,  Apologetischer  Versuch  iiber  die  Bucher  der  Chronik  und  iiber  die 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH  22? 

Integritiit  dcs  Buches  Ezra  (1833);  KUENEN,  Hisiorisch-kritisch  Onderzoek  naar  het 
Ontstaan  en  de  Verzameling  -van  de  Boeken  des  Ouden  Verbonds,  Vol.  II  (1861,  2d  ed. 
1887,  German  transl.  1892),  pp.  103-83;  SCHRADER,  "Die  Dauer  des  zweiten  Tempel- 
baues.  Zugleich  ein  Kritik  des  Buches  Ezra,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken, 
1867,  pp.  460-504;  MARGRAF,  "Zur  Aufhellung  der  nachexilischen  Chronologic," 
Theolog>  Quartahchrift,  1870,  pp.  567  ff.;  DE  SAULCY,  Etude  chronologique  des  livres 
d'Esdras  et  de  Ndhemie  (1868);  BOHME,  Nehemia  1-6  (1871);  FRANZ  DELITZSCH, 
"Der  Esra  der  Uberlieferung  und  der  Esra  der  neuesten  Pentateuch-Kritik,"  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  die  gesamte  lutherische  Theologie  u.  Kirche,  Vol.  XXXVIII  (1877);  J. 
HALEVY,  "Esdras  et  le  code  sacerdotal,"  Revue  de  rhistoire  des  religions,  Vol.  IV 
(1877);  EB.  NESTLE,  "Zum  Frage  nach  der  urspriingliche  Einheit  der  Biicher  Chronik, 
Esra  und  Nehemia,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1879,  pp.  155-21;  SMEND, 
Die  Listen  der  Biicher  Ezra  und  Nehemia  (1881);  A.  ROSENZWEIG,  Das  Jahrhundert 
nach  dem  babylonischen  Exit  mil  besonderer  Riicksicht  auf  die  religiose  Entwicklung 
desjudentums  (1885);  J.  HALEVY,  "Esdras  a-t-il  promulgue"  une  loi  nouvelle?"  Revue 
de  Vhistoire  des  religions,  Vol.  XII  (1885);  KUENEN,  "  L'ceuvre  d'Esdras,"  ibid.,  Vol. 
XIII  (1886),  pp.  334-58  (German  transl.  by  K.  BUDDE  in  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen 
zur  biblischen  Wissenschaft  von  Dr.  Abraham  Kuenen  (1894),  pp.  370-91);  BLEEK- 
WELLHAUSEN,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (5th  ed.  1886),  pp.  205-22 ;  BER- 
THEAU-RYSSEL,  Die  Biicher  Esra-Nehemia  und  Esther  erklart  ("Kurzgefasstes 
exegetisches  Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1887);  RYSSEL,  "  Die  Anfange  der 
jiidischen  Schriftgelehrsamkeit,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1887,  pp.  149-82; 
STADE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1888),  pp.  95-193;  OETTLI,  Ezra  und 
Nehemia  (STRACK  UND  ZOCKLER'S  "  Kurzgefasste  Kommentar,"  1889);  RIEHM,  Ein- 
leitung in  das  Alte  Testament,  Vol.  II  (1890),  pp.  329-38 ;  VAN  HOONACKER,  Nthtmie 
et  Esdras.  Une  nouvelle  hypothese  sur  la  chronologic  de  rdpoque  de  la  restauration 
(1890) ;  KUENEN,  "  De  Chronologic  van  het  Perzische  Tijdvak  der  Joodsche  Geschie- 
denis,"  Verslagen  en  Mededeelingen  der  Koninklijke  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen, 
Afdeeling  Letterkunde,  Amsterdam,  1890,  pp.  273-322  (German  transl.  by  K.  BUDDE, 
in  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  u.  s.-w.  (1894),  pp.  212-51);  CORNILL,  Einleitung  in 
das  Alte  Testament  (\^\,  3d  ed.  l896),§45;  VAN  HOONACKER,  Zorobabel  et  le  second 
temple:  etude  sur  la  chronologie  des  six  premiers  chapitres  du  livre  d'1  Esdras  (1892) ; 
IDEM,  Nehemie  en  ran  20  d'Artaxerxes  I,  Esdras  en  ran  7  d'' Artaxerxes  77(1892); 
ZUNZ,Z>*>  gottesdienstlichen  Vortrdge  der  Juden  (1892),  pp.  20-31;  KONIG,  Einleitung 
in  das  Alte  Testament  (1893),  PP-  276-85;  CH.  HUYGHE,  "La  chronologie  des  livres 
d'Esdras  et  de  Ne'he'mie,"  Revue  des  questions  historiques,  1893;  WILDEBOER,  De 
Letterkunde  des  Ouden  Verbonds  naar  de  Tijdsorde  van  haar  Ontstaan  (1893,  German 
transl.  1895),  PP-  404-20;  KOSTERS,  Het  Herstel  van  Israel  in  het  Perzische  Tijdvak 
(1894,  German  transl.  1895);  LAGRANGE,  "Ne'he'mie  et  Esdras,"  Revue  biblique,  Oct. 
1894;  WELLHAUSEN,  "Die  Riickkehr  der  Juden  aus  dem  babylonischen  Exil,"  Nach- 
richten  der  koniglichen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaft  zu  Gottingen,  1895,  PP-  1 66-86; 
KOSTERS,  "Het  Tijdvak  van  Israels  Herstel,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  1895,  pp. 
549-57;  1896,  pp.  489-504;  1897,  pp.  518-54;  FL.  DE  MOOR,  "L'e'poque  de  la 
restauration  juive  d'apres  les  livres  d'Esdras  et  de  Ne'he'mie,"  Science  catholique, 
1895;  VAN  HOONACKER,  Nouvelles  ftudes  sur  la  restauration  juive  apres  rexil 
de  Babylone  (1896);  ED.  MEYER,  Die  Entstehung  des  Judenthums  (1896);  WELL- 
HAUSEN, Gottingischer  gelehrter  Anzeiger,  1897,  No.  2,  pp.  89  ff.  (review  of  MEYER'S 
Entstehung  des  Judenthums};  ED.  MEYER,  J.  Wellhausen  und  meine  Schrift,  "Die 


228  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Entstehung  des  Judenthums "  (1897);  J-  MARQUART,  Fundamente  israelitischer  und 
jiidischer  Geschichte  (1897),  pp.  28-68;  SELLIN,  Serubbabel — ein  Beitrag  zur 
Geschichte  der  messianischen  Erwartung  und  der  Entstehung  des  Judenthums  (1898), 
pp.  48-61;  KLOSTERMANN,  art.  "Esra  und  Nehemia,"  Realencyklopcedie  fur  prot. 
Theol.  u.  Kirche,  Vol.  V  (3d  ed.  1898) ;  GUTHE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1899), 
pp.  245-60 ;  J.  GEISSLER,  Die  literarische  Beziehungen  der  Esramemoiren  insbesondere 
zur  Chronik  und  den  hexateuchischen  Quellenschriften  (1899);  MOULTON,  "Uber  die 
Uberlieferung  und  den  textkritischen  Werth  des  dritten  Esrabuches,"  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XIX  (1899),  pp.  209-58;  Vol.  XX  (1900),  pp. 
!-35;  WINCKLER,  "Die  Zeit  der  Herstellung  Judas,"  Altorientalische  Forschungen, 
zweite  Reihe,  Band  II  (1899),  pp.  210-27;  IDEM,  "Die  Zeit  von  Ezras  Ankunft  in 
Jerusalem,"  ibid.,  pp.  241-4 ;  IDEM,  "Die  doppelte  Darstellung  in  Ezra-Nehemia," 
ibid.,  Band  III  (1901),  pp.  458-89;  NIKEL,  Die  Wiederherstellung  des  jiidischen 
Gemeinwesens  nach  dem  babylonischen  Exil(igoo);  C.  SIEGFRIED,  Esra,  Nehemia  und 
Esther  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  ("  Handkommentar  zum  Alien  Testament,"  1901);  SELLIN, 
Studien  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  der  jiidischen  Gemeinde,  Band  II  (1901);  BAUDISSIN, 
Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alien  Testamentes  (1901),  pp.  264-6,  279-300  ;  BERTHO- 
LET,  Die  Biicher  Esra  und  Nehemia  erkldrt  ("  Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten 
Testament,"  1902) ;  CARL  HOLZHEY,  Die  Biicher  Ezra  und  Nehemia.  Untersuchung 
ihres  litterarischen  und  geschichtlichen  Charakters  (1902). 

§  246.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Make  a  careful  comparison  of  the  parallel  passages,  Ezra2:i — 3:10 
and  Neh.  7:6-23,  noting  and  classifying  the  variations  in  the  two  lists. 

2.  Analyze  Ezra-Nehemiah  carefully,  with   a  view  to  determining 
for  yourself  the  sources  of  the  various  materials  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed and  the  historical  value  of  the  narrative  as  it  has  been  presented 
by  the  editor. 

Cf.  especially  TORREY,  The  Composition  and  Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemiah; 
GUTHE,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  ("Polychrome  Bible,"  1901);  SIEGFRIED,  Esra,  Nehe- 
mia und  Esther  ("Handkommentar  z.  A.  T."),  pp.  7—I4»  KOSTERS,  Het  Herstel  van 
Israel  in  het  Perzische  Tijdvak  (1894,  Germ,  transl.  1895);  CARL  HOLZHEY,  Die 
Biicher  Ezra  und  Nehemia;  Untersuchung  ihres  litterarischen  und  geschichtlichen 
Charakters  (1902) ;  MEYER,  Die  Entstehung  des  Judenthums;  SCHRADER,  Theologi- 
scke  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1867,  pp.  460-504;  VAN  HOONACKER,  Nehemie  et  Esdras; 
J.  O.  BOYD,  "The  Documents  of  the  Book  of  Ezra,"  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
Review,  1900,  pp.  414-37. 

3.  Compare  the  canonical  book  of  Ezra  with  the  apocryphal  book, 
Esdras  I,  noting  (i)  the  materials  common  to  both,  (2)  the  materials  ^ 
peculiar  to  each ;  and  consider  the  relative  value  of  each  as  historical 
sources. 

See,  e.  g.,  H.  HOWORTH,  "  A  Criticism  of  the  Sources  and  Relative  Importance 
and  Value  of  the  Canonical  Book  of  Ezra  and  the  Apocryphal  Book  Known  as  Esdras 
I,"  Transactions  of  the  Ninth  International  Congress  of  Orientalists,  Vol.  II  (1893),  PP« 
68-85  ;  MOULTON,  "  Uber  die  Uberlieferung  und  den  text-kritischen  Werth  des  dritten 
Esrabuches,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  209-58; 


HISTORICAL    LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH  22Q 

XX,  1-35;   BERTHOLET,  Esra   und  Nehemia,   p.  xvi :   SIEGFRIED,  Esra,  Nehemia 
und  Esther,  pp.  14  f. 

4.  Study  the  contents  of  the  numerous  genealogical  lists  in  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  from  the  point  of  view  of  (i)  their  origin,  (2)  their  historical 
value,  (3)  their  purpose. 

See  SMEND,  Die  Listen  der  Biicher  Ezra  und  Nehemia  (1881). 

5.  Study  the  descriptions  of  priestly  ceremonies,  and  customs,  the 
provision  made  for  the  support  of  the  temple  and  its  ministry,  and  all 
other  references  to  laws  and  usages  of  worship,  and  note  the  points  of 
contact  with  the  codes  of  worship,  with  a  view  to  determining  which 
stratum  of  laws  is  reflected  by  the  narrative  of  Ezra-Nehemiah. 

6.  Consider  the  fact  that  certain  portions  of   Ezra-Nehemiah  are 
written  in  Aramaic,  and  the  best  explanation  of  this  fact.     In  this  con- 
nection study  the  significance  of  the  presence  of  an  Aramaic  section  in 
the  book  of  Daniel. 

See,  e.  g.,  BERTHOLET,  op.  cit.,  p.  xv;  SIEGFRIED,  op.  cit.,  p.  7  ;  RYLE,  op.  cit.,  p. 
xx ;  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung,  p.  283.  On  Daniel  see  the  commentaries  by  Driver, 
Marti,  Behrmann,  Bevan,  and  Prince. 


PAET  SIXTH 


THE  LITERATURE  OF  WORSHIP -THE  HYMNAL 
LITERATURE 

XVIII.     THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN  THE  PSALTER. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  — THE    PRIESTLY   ELEMENT   IN  THE    PSALTER. 

§  247.  The  Scope  of  the  Priestly  Element  in  the  Psalter. — The  Psalter 
was  used  in  the  ritual  of  worship.  But  more  than  this ;  a  consider- 
able portion  of  it  had  its  origin  in  connection  with  such  ritual.  It 
was,  therefore,  very  largely  a  result,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  the 
priestly  activity.  Its  outward  form  (§259)  shows  many  peculiarities 
which  are  distinctly  priestly.  It  abounds  in  allusions  (§§  261  ff.)  to  the 
priest,  the  place  of  worship,  feasts,  etc.  Its  principal  contents  consist 
of  prayers  and  songs  of  praise  (§§  265  f.),  that  is,  material  intended  for 
use  in  worship.  Much  of  the  composition,  although  by  no  means  all, 
may,  indeed,  be  attributed  to  priests,  or  guilds  of  priests. 

§  248.  Other  Elements  than  the  Priestly  occupy  a  large 
place  in  the  Psalter.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  at  the 
late  period  in  Hebrew  history  in  which  the  Psalter  finally 
took  on  its  present  form  the  work  of  the  prophets  for 
the  most  part  had  been  concluded  ;  the  work  also  of  the 
sage  had  taken  strong  hold  upon  the  people,  and  conse- 
quently much  of  the  teaching  of  both  these  classes  had 
been  absorbed  into  the  general  thought  and  opinion  of 
the  times.  Accordingly,  we  may  be  prepared  to  find  in  PSS.  15,19,33,46, 
this  collection  a  very  large  prophetic  element,  and  a 
smaller  amount  of  the  wisdom  material.  At  the  same 
time,  it  may  fairly  be  claimed  that  the  priestly  element 
dominates ;  for  in  fact,  the  Psalter  has  shown  itself  to  be 
the  greatest  help  to  worship  that  history  has  known. 

§249.  Constructive  Study. — Take  up  Pss.  72-99,  and  PSS.  72-99. 
distinguish  each  as  predominantly  prophetic,  priestly,  or 
philosophic  (that  is,  as  exhibiting  the  wisdom  element). 

§  250.  Many  Important  Problems  present  themselves  to  the  student 
of  the  Psalter ;  most  of  these  require  at  least  a  tentative  solution  before 
the  more  general  questions  can  be  satisfactorily  considered.  Among 
such  problems  are  the  following  : 

i.  Are  the  superscriptions,  of  which  so  many  are  found  in  the 
Psalter,  a  part  of  the  psalm  in  each  case,  and  consequently  authorita- 

233 


234  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

tive  ?     Or  are  they  from  a  much  later  date,  and  consequently  to  be 
treated  only  as  editorial  and  unauthoritative  suggestions  ? 

2.  May  we  expect  to  find,  in  connection  with  each  of  the  psalms,  a 
historical  background,  similar  to  that  which,  in  recent  years,  has  been 
emphasized  so  strongly  in  connection  with  the  sermons  of  prophets, 
and  the  different  codes  of  legislation  ? 

3.  Did  David  really  write  all  the  psalms  attributed  to  him,  or  any 
considerable  portion  of  them  ?    Is  it  reasonable  any  longer  to  suppose 
that  any  of  the  psalms  in  this  collection  come  from  so  early  a  period 
as  the  reign  of  David  ? 

4.  Is  the  "  I "  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the  psalms  an 
individual,  or  is  it  a  personification  of  the  Israelitish  community? 

5.  Are  there  psalms  in  the  Psalter  which  come  from  as  late  a  date 
as  the  times  of  the  Maccabees,  /'.  e.,  168  to  161  B.  C.  ? 

6.  To  what  extent  may  it  be  supposed  that  editorial  work  has  been 
done  on  the  collection  as  a  whole,  and  in  connection  with  individual 
psalms  ? 

§  251.  Of  What  Authority  Are  the  Superscriptions?— 
In  answering  this  question,  consider  — 

P8i6  i?'  IQ'  ao' «'          *  •   ^e  form   an(^  content,  and    note    that  they  are 

2a'  2o'  72'  i?'  90'  c°mplete   sentences,    or   detached   phrases   which    give 

PSS.  3,  7,  is,  30,  information,    more    or    less    definite,    concerning    the 

34  >  5*>5'i  54i  5^1 

57,60,63,92,100,  authorship,  or  the  circumstances  out  of  which  a  psalm 
120-134, 143. 

PSS.  4,  6,  8, 9,  xa,  grew,  or  matters  of  a  musical  or  liturgical  character ;  and 

aa,45, 61,63,84,  tkat  sucjj  superscriptions  are  rarely  found  outside  of  the 

Isa.  38:9;  Psalter 

Hab.3:i. 

2.  Their  origin,  and  determine  whether  they  are  to  be 
regarded  as  coming  from  the  author  of  the  psalm  in 
each  case ;  or  from  contemporaries  of  the  author ;  or  from 
editors  or  collectors  living  long  after  the  original  produc- 
tion of  the  psalm. 

3.  Their  authority,  and  note  : 

(a)  The  considerations  which  may  be  urged  in  favor 
of  this  authority,  viz.,  the  fact  that  they  evidently  are 

iChron.x5:ao,ai.  very  old — so  old,  indeed,  that  to  the  writer  of  i  Chron. 
15:  20,  21,  the  Hebrew  words  had  lost  their  meaning; 
the  fact  that  in  the  Hebrew  they  form  an  organic  part  of 

Pss.  51,  M,  59.  the  psalm  itself ;  the  fact  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  the 
substance  of  the  superscription  seems  to  be  entirely  con- 
sistent with  the  content  of  the  psalm ;  the  fact,  also,  that 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  235 

they  are  not  distributed  indiscriminately,  but  evidently 
were  intended  to  subserve  a  particular  purpose. 

(H)  The  considerations  which  are  urged  as  opposing 
their  authority,  viz.,  the  fact  that  very  frequently  the 
manuscripts  and  versions  differ,  while  the  Septuagint 
and  the  Peshitto  present  many  deviations  and  additions,1 
thus  indicating  that  even  in  the  most  ancient  days  there 
were  many  differences  of  opinion ;  the  fact  that  the  Pss.  27,  74, 79. 
superscription  in  many  cases  is  plainly  inconsistent  with 
the  content  of  the  psalm ;  the  fact  that  so  few  authors 
are  named,  when  probably  there  were  many;  the  fact, 
also,  that  statements  referring  to  historical  circumstances 
are  limited  to  psalms  ascribed  to  David. 

4.  The  tests  to  which  they  must  be  subjected,  viz.:  (a) 
that  of  linguistic  and  rhetorical  consistency  when  exam- 
ined with  reference  to  the  content  of  the  psalm ;  (b)  that 
of  historical  and  logical  consistency  with  the  content  of 
the  psalm. 

In  all  this  each  superscription  should  be  taken  up 
for  separate  consideration. 

§252.  Constructive  Study. —  Examine  a  series  of 
superscriptions  and  tabulate  the  questions  suggested  by  E.  &,  PSS.  18,  73, 

each  case,  with  the  results  which  may  fairly  be  accepted     III  34',  Js/lx,  <£', 

,    .  «o. 

in  each  instance. 

§  253.  Is  there  an  Historical  Element  in  the  Psalter,  like 
that  which  has  been  found  to  form  the  background  of 
Old  Testament  prophecy  and  Old  Testament  legislation? 
That  is,  can  we  find  any  connection  between  these  psalms 
and  the  history  of  the  people  in  the  midst  of  which 
they  were  first  uttered?  Did  Israel's  history,  or  did  the 
experiences  of  Israel's  leaders,  find  expression  in  the 
Psalms? 

i.  Consider,  now,  the  various  kinds  of  psalms  which 
may  be  thought  of  as  in  one  way  or  another  historical  : 

1  See  W.  T.  DAVISON,  art.  "  Psalms,"  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol. 
IV,  p.  150;  KIRKPATRICK,  The  Book  of  Psalms,  Books  IV  and  V  (1901),  pp.  xxxi  £.; 
DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.,  1897),  pp.  370  f.; 
BAETHGEN,  Die  Psalmen  ("Handkommentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  2d  ed.,  1897), 
p.  v;  DUHM,  Die  Psalmen  ("Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1899), 
p.  xvii. 


236  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

PSS.  106,78.  (a)  Certain  psalms  describe  in  a  concrete  way  certain 

historical  events,  either  individual  or  national;  may 
these,  and  others  like  them,  be  called  objectively  historical? 

P876  eo'e  lo;  46'  W  Certain  psalms,  although  not  descriptive  of  his- 
torical events,  may  be  regarded  as  the  outgrowth,  and  in 
themselves  the  expression,  of  an  historical  event — sub- 
jectively historical. 

PSS.  32,  51, 69, 84,  (^)  Certain  psalms  may  be  regarded  as  the  expression, 
although  not  the  description,  of  individual  experience. 

2.  Note  some  points  of  general  interest  in  respect  to 
the  historical  element  in  the  Psalms : 

(a)  The  absence,  in  general,  of  distinct  allusion  to 
specific  historical  events.    How  far  may  this  be  explained 

(1)  on  the  ground  of  the  lyric  character  of  the  Psalms? 

(2)  On  the  ground  of  the  divine  purpose  as  to  the  use  of 
the  Psalter  as  a  hymn-book  for  all  ages?     (3)  On  the 
supposition  that  changes  and  omissions  have  been  intro- 
duced throughout  the  centuries,  as  editors   have  trans- 
mitted the  collection  from  hand  to  hand? 

(b)  The  great  importance  of  discovering  this  histori- 
cal element  wherever  possible  (i)  for  the  sake  of  the 
freshness  and  vividness  which  is  thereby  added  to  the 
material ;  (2)  for  the  sake  of  the  new  historical  data  thus 
brought  to  light ;   (3)  for  the  sake  of  the  evidence  thus 
gained   respecting    the    growth    and    development    of 
psalmody. 

3.  Still  further,  make  a  study  of  three  closely  related 
points,  viz.: 

(a)  The  sources  from  which  help  may  be  obtained 
for  reaching  a  decision  on  these  questions,  e.  g.,  (i)  bib- 
lical history  ;  (2)  the  style  and  language  of  the  Psalms ; 

(3)  the  present  position  and  arrangement  in  the  Psalter ; 
and  (4)  the  superscriptions. 

(6)  The  character  of  the  knowledge  thus  obtained :  is 
it  definite?  is  it  trustworthy?  is  it  abundant? 

(f)  The  analogy  furnished  by  a  study  of  the  modern 
hymn-book. 

PSS.  78,  81,  105,         §254.  Constructive  Study.  —  Examine  certain  psalms; 
79,  laMsT?'  '  ''  and  (i)  classify  each  under  one  of  the  heads  (i.  (a)  (<$) 
and  (c))  indicated  above;  (2)  point  out  in  detail  and  dis- 
cuss the  historical  element  which  you  find. 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  237 

§255.  What  Is  David's  Place  in  Connection  with  the 
Psalter? — Perhaps  no  problem  more  important  than  this 
may  be  found  in  Old  Testament  literature.  It  is  well 
worth  while  to  examine  into  the  scope  and  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  problem.  Consider,  therefore —  p™'  s^M^e,  34 

1.  The  psalms  assigned  to  David  by  tradition  —  in      eaV)7^!4?^?)' 

all  seventy-three,  and  ordinarily  classified  by  periods  as      I1>55> 

*  J  Pss.  101,   15,  24, 

follows:    (a)  psalms  reflecting  his  early  life;   (o)  psalms      68,133,30. 

connected  with  Saul's  persecution  ;  (c)  psalms  connected      &>',^8. "' 1IO>  3' 
with  the  removal  of  the  ark;  (d}  psalms  connected  with  Pss- 51>3a- 

PSS      6^     ^     4      2^ 

David's  v/ars  ;    (e)  psalms  connected  with   David's  fall;      36,62,' 27, 48,41) 

55,  gg(  109. 

(/)  psalms  connected  with  his  flight  from  Absalom ;  (g)  pss.  5,  9,  11-14, 

others  not  definitely  connected  with  any  period.  36^40,' 53,' s&'ei1,' 

2.  The  reasons  urged  for  the  probability  of  so  large  losfJogTiaa,'"^ 
a  number  of  Davidic  psalms,  e.  g. :  \l\\  i^-i^13 

(a)  The  period  preceding  David  was  just  what  would 
have  been  expected  to  produce  such  a  result,  since  it 
included,  e.  g.,  (i)  the  religious  revival  under  Samuel ; 
(2)  a  wonderful  activity  on  the  part  of  the  prophets,  like 
Samuel,  Gad,  Nathan ;  (3)  the  founding  of  the  prophetic 
schools ;  (4)  a  marked  degree  of  development  in  the  way 
of  spiritual  activity. 

(b)  The  times  of  David  furnished  an  excellent  basis 
for   these   psalms,  since   they   were   times   of   national 
struggle,  of  multiform  experience,  of  high  aspiration. 

(c\  The  several  historical   references  to  David  as  a  x  Sam.  16:17, 18; 

18:10:   3    Sam. 

musician  and  a  poet  substantiate  this  claim.  1:19-37;  Amos 

6:  5. 

(d)  The  many-sidedness  of  David's  character  as  it  is 
revealed  in  his  private  life,  as  shepherd,  soldier,  states- 
man ;  priest,  prophet,  king ;  friend,  father,  leader. 

(e)  The    overwhelming    evidence   furnished   by   the 
superscriptions,  which,  at  all  events,  show  that  from  very 
early  times  David  was  regarded  as  the  author. 

(/)  The  ease  with  which  the  events  of  David's  life 
may  be  fitted  into  connection  with  the  content  of  the 
Psalms.* 

°On  this  point  the  following  statements  present  the  opposing  views  :  "  References 
to  the  more  remarkable  passages  in  David's  life  occur  in  places  without  number. 
There  are  psalms,  not  a  few,  which  it  is  impossible  for  anyone  to  read  without  being 
reminded  that  they  are  his." —  BINNIE,  The  Psalms. 

The  view  that  these  psalms  come  from  David  "  implies  absolute  incapacity  to 


238  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

3.  The  reasons  urged  against  the  probability  of  so 
large  a  number  of  Davidic  psalms : 

(a)  The  uniform  tendency  of  tradition  to  magnify 
the  work  of  a  particular  man ;  as  seen  in  the  parallel 
cases  of  Moses,  to  whom  all  Hebrew  legislation  is 

E. g., Lev. i : x ;      ascribed:    Isaiah,  to  whom  the  work  of    four  or  more 
4:1;  Deut.  37 : 
i;  Prov. i.i;      prophets  is  ascribed:  and  Solomon,  to  whom  so  large  a 

Eccl.  1:1; 

Cant.  i:x.          portion  of  the  wisdom  literature  is  assigned. 

£.f.,p8».  3, 18,  (<$)  The  fact  that  only  in  the  case  of  psalms  assigned 

to  David  are  the  circumstances  of  occasion  or  origin 
indicated. 

£.?.,Ps8.  laa,  (<r)  The  certainty  that  in  many  cases  the  assignment 

to   David  is  unquestionably  wrong;  and,  with  this,  the 
unreliable  character  in  general  of  the  superscriptions. 

(</)  The  difficulty  involved  in  the  proposition  that 
the  composition  of  psalms  was  thus  restricted  to  so  few 
periods.  Were  there  not  many  historical  situations  in 
which  conditions  existed  favorable  to  psalmody  ? 

(e)  The  difficulties  involved  in  the  proposition  that 
psalms  which  represent  the  highest  and  latest  stage  of 
Israelitish  spiritual  development  should  have  had  their 
origin  (t)  before  the  work  and  utterances  of  a  single 

c/.  Ps8.go,97.  prophet  of  those  who  have  written;  (2)  before  there  was 
any  considerable  acceptance  on  the  part  of  the  Israelitish 

c/.  PSS. 91,96.  nation  of  the  doctrine  of  one  God;  (3)  during  a  period 
when  Israel  was  steeped  in  superstition  and  continually 

c/.  PSS.  86, 39.  relapsing  into  idolatry  of  the  foulest  character ;  (4)  in 
connection  with  the  life  of  a  king  characterized  by  a 
spirit  at  once  fierce  and  warlike,  and  by  a  life  abounding 
in  the  most  heinous  crimes,  among  which  were  adultery 
and  murder. 

4.  The  views  presented  in  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant contributions  to  the  subject,  e.g.:  Konig  (1893) 
maintains  the  historical  probability  of  the  Davidic  author- 
ship of  certain  psalms  and  finds  no  objection  to  assigning 
3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  n,  15,  18,  23,  29,  30,  and  32  to  David. 
Driver  (Introduction,  6th  ed.,  1897)  grants  that  a  majority 

understand  the  difference  between  old  Israel  and  later  Judaism,  and  makes  almost 
anything  possible  in  the  way  of  ascription  of  comparatively  modern  pieces  to  ancient 
authors." — W.  R.  SMITH,  Encyclopaedia.  Biblica,  col.  3931. 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  239 

of  the  "Davidic"  psalms  are  not  David's,  but  insists 
upon  the  possibility  of  Davidic  psalms,  and  declares  that 
if  there  are  any  such,  they  may  safely  be  looked  for 
among  those  on  Ewald's  list,  which  is  possibly  too  large. 
Baethgen  (1897)  says,  "of  the  seventy-three  psalms 
ascribed  to  David,  in  the  case  of  only  a  few  at  the  most 
can  Davidic  authorship  be  defended  with  any  plausibility, 
e'S">  3»  4>  l&>  and  that  even  for  these  the  supposition  of 
a  later  redaction  is  hardly  to  be  avoided."  Wellhausen 
(1898)  says  :  "It  is  not  a  question  whether  there  be  any 
post-exilic  psalms,  but  rather  whether  the  psalms  contain 
any  poems  written  before  the  exile."  Duhm  (1899) 
denies  the  existence  of  any  Davidic  psalms,  and  is 
doubtful  whether  any  psalms  come  from  a  time  earlier 
than  the  Greek  period.  Kirkpatrick  (1901)  argues  for 
the  Davidic  authorship  of  Ps.  18,  and  adds:  "If  this  be 
acknowledged,  important  consequences  follow.  For 
depth  of  devotion,  simplicity  of  trust,  joyousness  of 
gratitude,  and  confidence  of  hope,  not  less  than  for  its 
natural  force  and  poetic  beauty,  that  psalm  has  few 
rivals.  It  has  all  the  freshness  of  creative  genius.  It 
can  hardly  have  been  the  solitary  production  of  its 
author.  If  such  a  psalm  could  have  been  written  by< 
David,  so  might  many  others."  Cheyne  (Encyclopedia 
Biblica)  denies  the  historical  possibility  of  Davidic 
psalms  in  our  Psalter,  and  explains  the  superscription  of 
David  as  a  corruption  of  an  original  of  Jedithun? 

5.  The  various  tests  to  which  each  psalm,  thought  to 
be  Davidic,  must  be  subjected,  viz.: 

(a)  The  historical  test ;  that  is :  Is  the  background 
of  the  psalm  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  of  David's 
time  ?  Are  the  historical  and  social  presuppositions  of 
the  psalm  met  by  the  facts  of  the  Davidic  period  ? 

(<l>)  The  theological  test ;  that  is  :  Are  the  ideas  con- 
cerning God,  man,  and  sin  which  the  psalm  reflects  in 
keeping  with  the  stage  of  theological  thought  to  which 
David  and  his  contemporaries  may  fairly  be  said  to  have 
belonged  ? 

(c)  The   rhetorical    test;  that   is:    Are  the   poetical 

3 See  also  pp.  23  f. 


240  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

form  and  the  general  literary  style  such  as  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  earlier  days  of  Hebrew  poetry  ? 

(</)  The  grammatical  test ;  that  is :  Are  the  syntax, 
the  order  of  words,  the  structure  of  sentences,  and  the 
grammatical  forms  such  as  are  found  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  the  language  of  the  Old  Testament  ? 

(e)  The  vocabulary  test ;  that  is  :  Is  the  language  of 
the  psalm  the  pure  Hebrew  of  the  Davidic  age,  or  does 
it  contain  Aramaic,  Persian,  and  Greek  words,  so  many 
of  which  crowded  into  the  Hebrew  speech  in  the  course 
of  the  later  history  ? 

§256.   Constructive  Study. —  Select  from  each  of  the 
following  groups  of  psalms  one  or  more,  and  apply  the 
tests  suggested  above  : 
PSS.  122, 124, 131,          i.  Psalms  which,  although  assigned  by  tradition  to 

*33i  '38-I45' 

David,  are  almost  universally  believed  to  be  wrongly  so 

assigned. 
PSS.  3, 4, 7,  ii,  18,         2.  Psalms   which   are   certainly   to   be   regarded   as 

Davidic,  if  there  are  any  Davidic  psalms. 
PSS.  8, 19,  22,  23,         3.  Psalms  which,  while  assigned  to  David   by  some 

24t  *5i  32,  37- 

eminent  authorities,  are,  to  say  the  least,  uncertain. 
§  257.   Constructive  Study. — Formulate  a  statement  which  will  pre- 
sent briefly  what  is  involved  in  a  decision  to  assign  no  psalms  to  David, 
in  contrast  with  the  traditional  view  ascribing  to  him  seventy-three,  or 
even  a  more  liberal  position  ascribing  ten  or  twelve. 

§258.  Does  the  "I"  of  the  Psalter  represent  an 
individual,  or  the  entire  Israelitish  community  ?  Con- 
sider, in  connection  with  this  problem,  the  following 
points : 

1 .  The  use  of  the  rhetorical  figure,  termed  personifica- 
tion in  general  literature.4 

2.  The  use  of  personification  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
effort  to  find  concrete  expression  for  the  origin  of  a  tribe 
or  community.5 

*  On  the  general  subject  of  personification  see  especially  FREYTAG,  Technique  of 
the  Drama,  trans,  by  E.  J.  MACEwAN  (3d  ed.,  1900),  pp.  246  ff. 

SW.  R.  SMITH,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (1885,  2d  ed.,  1903), 
pp.  20  f. 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  24! 

•5.  Some   specific  examples:    me=  Egyptians (Exod.  £..?.,  Numb. 20: 
x                                                          t,                /                           j       if, 19;  Isa.  12: 
14:15);  and  the  frequent  interchange  of  singular  and      1,2;  25:1536: 
,  9j  Jer.  10.19; 

plural.  MIC.  7:7-10; 

Lam.  i :  n/>  16, 

4.  Some  important  examples  of  personification  in  the     18-22;  isa.  61: 
Old  Testament : 

(a)  The  servant  of  Jehovah,  under  which  figure  is  set  isa.,  chaps.  40-55. 
forth  the  mission  of  the  community  of  pious  Jews  as  the 
representative  of  Jehovah  in  a  wicked  world. 

(ff)  The  character  of  Job  in  the  Book  of  Job ;  under 
the  guise  of  a  person,  the  sufferings  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munity at  the  hands  of  heathen  oppressors  are  portrayed 
and  discussed,  the  poet  setting  forth  the  doubts  and 
questions  which  arose  in  the  minds  of  pious  Jews,  the 
various  theories  proposed  in  explanation  of  the  suffer- 
ings,  and  his  own  point  of  view. 

(^)   The  common  practice  of  the  prophets,  e.  g.,  Amos's  Am.  5:  i  ff. 
dirge   over   the   approaching   destruction    of    northern 
Israel ;  Hosea's  representation  of  Israel  as  the  bride  of  HOS.,  chap.  2. 
Jehovah;  the  representation  of  Jerusalem  as  a  person  in  isa., chap. 60. 
Isaiah;  Ezekiel's  characterization  of  Samaria  and  Jerusa-  Bzek., chap. 33. 
lem  as  two  harlots ;  and  the  use  of  the  title    "  virgin 
daughter  of  Israel." 

5.  Some  of  the  points  involved  in  interpreting  the 
"I"  as  of  the  community  : 

(a)  If  the  "I"  be  the  community  of  Israel,  and  the 
statements  made  represent  the  thought  of  the  community 
as  a  whole,  will  it  be  necessary  to  find  a  date  for  these 
psalms  in  which  there  was  a  fair  degree  of  unanimity  of 
opinion  in  the  community? 

(^)  If  these  psalms  are  the  expression  of  the  heart  of 
the  community  at  large,  could  they  have  been  written  at 
a  time  when  the  prophets  and  priests  were  in  definite 
conflict  with  each  other,  /.  e.,  down  until  621  B.  C.  ? 

(c)  When,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  did  there  first  come  to 
be  a  community  feeling  in  Israel? 

(d)  Is   a  difference  to   be   found   between   national 
feeling  and  community  feeling?     If  so,  in    what  does 
this  consist?     Is  the  idea  of  a  church-nation  evident? 

(e)  Is  it,  in  general,  true  that  the  community  inter- 
pretation requires  a  later  date  for  the  psalms  than  the 
individual  interpretation? 


242  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(/)  Would  the  following  description  of  the  "I" 
meet  the  demands  of  the  case,  viz.:  "the  company  of 
faithful  Israelites  and  diligent  frequenters  of  the  temple 
who  formed  the  kernel  of  the  post-exilic  Judean  com- 
munity"? 

Of)  Would  one  expect  to  find,  at  this  age  of  religious 
development,  in  a  hymn-book  intended  for  a  community 
and  for  public  worship,  psalms  of  so  strongly  marked 
an  individual  character? 

(K)  Is  it  not  true,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  lyric 
poet  always  generalizes,  and  that,  while  describing  his 
own  experiences,  he  really  includes  all  whose  situation  is 
like  his  own? 

(/)  Are  not  these  psalms,  when  interpreted  of  the 
community,  much  more  significant? 

(/)  Is  it  also  true  that  a  writer  may  as  a  representa- 
tive include  with  himself  a  few  others,  perhaps  an  entire 
party,  who  have  the  same  feelings  with  himself? 

§  259.   Constructive  Study. —  Take  up,  now,  the  special 
study  of  certain  passages,  and  determine  whether,  on  the 
whole,  the  individual,  or  the  community  interpretation 
PSS.  44 : 4,  e,  15 ;      seems  more  fitting,  e.  g. : 

£:'xsll?;'n;  i.  A  group  which  most  modern  writers  would  regard 

ioa;Vi8.  's        as  representing  the  community. 

PSS.  7;  9;  10;  as;         2.  A  group  thought  by  some  to  have  as  subject  the 
37593;  «9-  '  J 

godly  portion  of  the  community. 

PSS.  44:56:57;  *.  A  group  thought  by  some  to  have  as  subject  the 

60;  65;  74;  ioa;  '  ' 

*45-  nation  as  a  whole. 

§  260.   Did  Any  Psalms  Have  Their  Origin  in  the  Maccabean  Period 
(/'.  f.,  168-161  B.  C.)? — Consider,  in  this  connection: 

1.  The  question  of  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  canon.     When 
may  this  be  supposed  to  have  happened,  and  under  what  circumstances? 
What  bearing  on  this  question  does  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  (see 
Prologue)  have?     And,  further,  in  what  relation  with  this  event  does 
the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  stand? 

2.  The  question  of  the  age  of  the  Book  of  Daniel;  e.  g.:  (a)  What 
considerations  may  be  urged  against  the  older  view  which  placed  the 
book  in  the  days  of  the  exile,  and  in  favor  of  the  modern  view  which 
assigns  it  to  the  age  of  the  Maccabees?   (K)  What  important  difference 
in  the  interpretation  of  chap,  n  turns  on  this  decision? 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  243 

3.  The  question  of  the  origin  and  date  of  the  Septuagint;  e.  g.:  (a) 
Could  books  have  found  their  place  in  the  canon  as  late  as  161  B.  C., 
and  yet  have  secured  a  place   in  the  Greek  version?     (<$)  At  what 
periods  were  the  various  divisions  of  the  Old  Testament  translated  into 
Greek?     (c)  The  significance  of  the  fact  that  the  Septuagint  includes  a 
psalm  not  found  in  the  Hebrew. 

4.  The  special  circumstances  of  the  Maccabean  times  which  cannot 
be  found  in  connection  with  any  earlier  period  of  Israelitish  history; 
e.  g. :  (a)  a  time  when  protestation  of  national  innocence  was  possible 
(cf.  Ps.  44);  (b)  a  time  when  synagogues   were  in  existence  (cf,  Ps. 
74:8);  (c)  a  time  when  Israel  and  the  opposing  nations  constitute  the 
two  classes  mentioned. 

§261.  Constructive  Study. — Take  up  certain  psalms, 
and  determine  for  yourself  whether  they  seem  to  fit  into 
the  Maccabean  times;  e.  g.: 

1.  Certain    psalms,    generally    acknowledged   to    be  PSS.  44, 74, 79, 83. 
Maccabean. 

2.  Certain   psalms   concerning   which  there  is  con-  PSS.  80,60, 
siderable  doubt. 

3.  Certain  psalms  concerning  which  there  is  still  a  PSS.  ao, ax,  33, 101. 
greater  degree  of  doubt. 

§  262.  In  What  Ways  Did  the  Editorial  Factor  Enter 
into  the  Psalter? — This  question  can  only  be  touched 
upon.  Consider — 

1.  The  editorial  element  which  appears  in  connec- 
tion with  the  superscriptions  (see  above,  §  251),  a  work 
involving    selection,   arrangement,    interpretation,   and 
designation  as  to  use.    Is  there  evidence  of  difference  of 
opinion  in  this  work  ? 

2.  The  editorial  work  suggested  by  the  fact  that  the 
Greek  text  (Septuagint)  has  a  psalm  not  contained  in  the  PS.  151. 
Hebrew  Psalter,  concerning  David  as  a  shepherd. 

3.  The  editorial  work  to  be  inferred  from  (a)  the 

fact  that  Pss.  42,  43,  now  two,  were  quite  certainly  one  PSS.^.^HS.IM. 

at  an  earlier  time ;  cf.  also  Pss.  113,114;  and  (V)  the  fact 

that  Ps.  24,  now  one,  was  perhaps  originally  two,  vss.  PSS.  24, 37, 33. 

1-6  and  vss.  7-10  being  separate  pieces;  cf.  also  Ps. 

27  : 1-6  and  7-14;  Ps.  32  : 1-7  and  8-n. 

4.  The  editorial  work  implied  in  the  two  editions  of 

the  same  psalm  which  are  to  be  found,  in  which  one  PS.  18  and  a  Sam., 

1  chap.  23. 


244  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

word  in  every  four  shows  a  variation,  the  more  common 
of  which  may  be  classified  as  (a)  the  incorporation  of 
glosses,  (&}  correction  of  harsh  and  unusual  terms,  (c) 
alterations  for  the  purpose  of  securing  greater  harmony, 
or  of  removing  words  which  were  objectionable  from  the 
dogmatic  point  of  view.6 

5.  Editorial  work  which  went  so  far  as  to  add  new 
PS.  51:18, 19.         verses  to  an  old  psalm. 

6.  Who  these  editors  were ;  e.  g.,  those  connected 
with  the  song  service  of  the  temple  ?  prophets  ?  priests  ? 
scribes  ? 

§263.    Constructive  Study. —  Select  from  any  part  of 
E.  g.,  PSS. 74-76.     the  Psalter  half  a  dozen  psalms,  and,  taking  them  up  one 
by  one,  tabulate  carefully  anything  that  looks  like  edito- 
rial work. 

§  264.    The  Pritstly  Factor  in  the  Psalter  is  plainly 
discernible  in  certain  external  elements  affecting  its  out- 
ward form  and  use : 
PS.  41:13.  i.  Read  the  doxology  which  closes  Book  I ;  compare 

PSS.  72:18, 19;       the  similar  doxologies  in  other  psalms,  and  note  that  by 
89:52;  106:48;  * 

150.  means  of  these  doxologies  the  Psalter  is  divided  into  five 

books.     Was  this  suggested  by  the  division  of  the  law 
into  five  books?     May  both  arrangements  be  ascribed 
to  the  priests  ? 
E, g.,  PSS.  51 : 7,  2.  Examine  the  phraseology,  tone,  and  style  of  sev- 

16, 17, 19;  37:1- 

6;  65: 1-3; 74: i-  eral  passages,  and  observe  how  definitely  all  this  points 
to  the  priest. 

PS.  24.  3.  Note,  (a)  in  Ps.  24,  the  question  asked  in  vs.  3, 

with  the  answer  given  in  vss.  4-6 ;  likewise,  (b)  the  simi- 
lar interchange  of  general  statement,  answer,  and  ques- 

Pss.43, 43.  tion  in  vss.  7-10;  (c)  the  thrice-recurring  refrain  in  Pss. 

42,  43  (vss.  5, 1 1,  and  vs.  5) ;  (d)  the  monotonous  refrain 

PS.  136.  in  Ps.  136;  and  consider  whether  these  examples  do  not 

seem  to  show  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  there  was 
antiphonal  singing  by  divisions  of  the  temple  choir,  as 
well  as  that  the  psalms  were  used  in  public  song.  Con- 
sider also  (e)  the  many  musical  terms  employed. 

Pss.  xaa,  134, 134.          4.  Examine   Pss.  122,  124,  134,  and  consider  their 

6Cf.  W.  H.  BENNETT,  "Notes  on  a  Comparison  of  Psalm  XVIII  with  2  Sam. 
XXII,"  Hebraica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  65-86. 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  24$ 

adaptation  to  the  purpose  which  seems  to  be  suggested 
in  their  title,  "Songs  of  Ascents,"  viz.,  songs  sung  by 
companies  of  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  With  what  spirit  is  the  temple  itself  re- 
garded ? 

5.  Read  carefully  the   group    of   psalms   numbered 
146-150,  and  note  that  the  entire  content  is  an  invita-  PSS.  146-150. 
tion  or  call  to  worship  —  exhortations  to  the  whole  con- 
gregation of  worshipers  to  sing  praises  to  Jehovah. 

6.  Consider  the  use  of  certain  psalms  in  connection   Pss'.8J1_:i.~5^.  _g 
with  special  occasions  of  worship;  e.  g.:  (a)  with  feasts;  i  Chron.  15  :  16-28. 
(fr)  with  the  temple-worship  ;  (c)  with  the  dedication  of     ^s'f.^^^o-^. 
the  wall  at  Jerusalem;  (d]  with  the  bringing  up  of  the   c/^^hpla'6 
ark  to  Jerusalem.  i*5-''ia6?'$''l~ 

§265.  Constructive  Study.  —  Summarize  the  material  suggested  in 
§  264,  and  formulate  a  statement  on  the  priestly  element  in  the  Psalter 
as  seen  in  the  external  use. 

8266.  References  to   the   Priett  are    found   in   the  PSS.  58:64;  99:6; 

105:26;    1  06:  1  6, 

Psalter.     What,  briefly,  is  the  evidence  furnished  by  these  30  f.  ;  no:  4; 

.  115:10,13; 

passages  concerning  the  priest,  his  position,  and  his  influ-  118:3;  132:9, 

°  16;  134:1-3; 

encer  135:19*. 

8267.  References  to  the  Place  of  Worship  are  found  PSS.  5:7;  11:4; 

20  :  2  ;  22:25:24: 

in  the  Psalter.     What  may  be  inferred  from  this  material      3;   26:6-8,  ia; 

27  :  4-6  ;  28  :  a  ; 

concerning   the   attitude   of   the   psalmists   toward   the     29:9;  36:8;  40: 

9:42:4;  43  ;  3  f  .  ; 

temple  and  its  worship?  46:4:48:1*., 

8  268.   Referencts  to  Sacrifice  are  found  in  the  Psalter.     52:'s;  55:14;' 

61  :  4  ;  63  :  2  ;  65  • 

What  light  do  these  references  throw  upon  the  subject  of     1.4;  66:13;  esi 

15-17,  24,  29  ;  69  • 

the  priestly  tone  and  spirit  of  the  Psalter  ?     What  is  the     9;  73:17;  74  = 

a  ff  .  ;  76  :  a  ;  77  : 

attitude  of  the  psalmists  toward  sacrifice?  13;  78:54.  58, 

§269.    References  to  Feasts  are  found  in  the  Psalter.  PSS.^ 


Consider  also  the  significance  of  the  Psalms  of  Ascents  in  £;  aj^ifief., 

this  connection.7     Do  the  psalms  furnish  any  evidence  eeli^/iV;5^"- 

as  to  the  ideas  concerning  feasts  at  the  time  of  their  I07::a2':3i7i6:'i7; 

composition?  pi?^';  •«:* 

§270.   The  Very  Essence  of  the  Psalter  is  Priestly, 
since  in  its  purpose  and  contents  it  may  be  explained 

?  On  these  psalms  see  the  literature  cited  on  p.  1  06,  note  10;  also  BAETHGEN, 
Die  Psalmen  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  ("  Handkommentar,"  u.  s.  w.;  2d  ed.,  1897),  pp. 
xvii  f.;  W.  T.  DAVISON,  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  153  f.; 
and  the  commentaries  of  EWALD  and  DELITZSCH,  in  loc. 


246  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See,  e.g-.,psa.  6g,  only  as  a  Book  of  Worship.    In  this  regard  it  maybe  con- 

88,  17,  36, 143. 

See,  *..r.,Ps8. 29,  sidered  from  three  points  of  view,  according  as  it  served 

Q5*  1^3    ^35    Q» 

103.    '  the  purpose  of  (i)  Book  of  Prayer,  for  the  Israelitish 

91', 23,73.        '  church;   (2)  Book   of  Praise;  (3)  Manual  of  Personal 
?ss.  69, 88.  Communion  with  God. 

§  271.   The  Psalter  as  a  Book  of  Prayer. — Note  that— 
i.  Sometimes  throughout  an  entire  psalm  the  tone  is 

Cf.  PS.  ai :  i-2i       that  of  supplication  or  penitence,  or  both ;  while  at  other 
with  PS.  33:22- 
31.  times  the  tone  of  supplication   with  which   the  psalm 

begins  passes  over  into  one  of  triumphant  praise. 

PSS.  80, 85, 90, 123.  2.  Sometimes  the  prayer  is  unquestionably  the  formal 
prayer  spoken  by  the  congregation  as  such;  while  at 
other  times  the  prayer  is  clearly  that  of  an  individual 
soul  "in  converse  with  God,  disclosing  to  him  its  mani- 
fold emotions,  desires,  aspirations,  or  fears." 

3.  The  Psalter  is  as  definitely  a  prayer-book  as  it  is  a 
hymn-book,  and  to  be  interpreted  as  such. 

§  272.   Constructive  Studies. — Take  up,   in  turn,  the 
following  assignments  of  work  : 

PSS.  69,  88, 79, 74,  ia.  Examine  carefully  certain  prayers  offered  for 
deliverance,  and  analyze  the  thought  which  they  contain, 
in  order  to  determine,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  nature  of  the  calumny 
or  trouble  from  which  deliverance  is  sought ;  (b)  the  out- 
ward circumstances  of  the  suffering  described;  (/)  the 
grounds  on  which  petition  for  relief  is  based;  (d)  the 
extent  to  which  faith  exists  that  deliverance  will  ulti- 
mately be  secured;  (e)  the  stage  of  religious  thought 
marked  by  these  utterances. 

2  Kings  19: 15-19;          ib.  Study  in  the  same  way  similar  utterances  found 
7:5;jon.a:i-9;  outside  of  the  Psalter,  and  note  the  points  of  difference. 

PSS.  17, 36, 55, 57,          2a-  Examine  certain  prayers  which  demand  from  God 
69>7°-  vindication  of  character;  and  analyze  the  thought  pre- 

sented, in  order  to  formulate,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  nature  of  the 
accusation  which  seems  to  have  been  preferred  against 
the  defendant ;  (b)  the  injury  which  he  is  represented 
as  having  suffered  in  consequence;  (c)  the  grounds 
on  which  the  demand  for  vindication  is  made ;  (d)  the 
measure  of  the  suppliant's  consciousness  of  rectitude ; 
(e)  the  stage  of  religious  development  suggested  by 
these  utterances. 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  247 

2b.  Study  in  the  same  way  similar  pieces  found  out-  isa.57:if.;  job, 

chaps.  22,  30. 
side  of  the  Psalter,  and  note  any  points  of  difference. 

30.  Examine  passages  containing  petition  to* guidance  PSS.  143, 61,86, 
in  the  midst  of  danger  and  difficulty;  and  analyze  the 
same  in  order  to  determine,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  nature  of  the 
trouble  or  difficulty  in  which  the  suppliant  finds  him- 
self; (b}  the  historical  background  which  is  implied ;  (c) 
the  tone  of  the  supplication  put  forth  for  guidance  ;  (d} 
the  degree  of  expectation  which  is  exhibited  as  to  the 
answer  to  be  vouchsafed ;  (e)  the  stage  of  religious 
development  indicated. 

3<$.  Study  in  the  same  way  similar  .utterances  found  Numb.  11:10-15; 

Jos.  7:6-9; 
outside  the  Psalter,  and  note  the  points  of  difference.  iSam.  23:2. 

7-12 ;  30: 7  f. 

4.  Examine  certain  prayers  which  exhibit  more  of  the 
element  of    contemplation;    and    analyze    the    thought  E. s.,  PSS.  77, 73, 
expressed,  adopting  as  the  basis  of  analysis  your  own 
form  of  logical  development. 

§  273.   The  Psalter  as  a  Book  of  Praise. —  Observe  — 

1.  That  the  very  name  of  the  Hebrew  Psalter  (t'titllini) 

means    "praise-songs;"    and    that    still    other   words  -£.£-.,  PSS. ee, 
expressing  various  phases  of  the  idea  of  song  are  em- 
ployed. 

2.  That  in  many  cases  the  tone  of  prayer  passes  into  E-  ^-.PSS.  13,  aa, 

,  *7,  a8,  to6, 138. 

that  of  praise,  and  in  still  others,  the  tone  of  praise 
passes  into  that  of  prayer. 

3.  That  everything  of  a  musical  character  points  to 
the  use  of  the  psalms  as  media  of  praise. 

§274.  Constructire  Studies.  —  Take  up,  in  turn,  the 
following  assignments  of  work  : 

\a.  Examine  carefully  certain  praise-songs,  in  which  E.  .?-.,  PSS;  65, 107, 

114, 124, 136. 
the  author  seeks   to    find  expression   for  the  praise  of 

God  because  of  the  manifestation  of  his  power;  and 
analyze  the  thought  according  as  it  is  related  to  (a)  the 
writer's  situation ;  (ft)  the  form  of  manifestation  of  the 
divine  power ;  (c)  the  way  in  which  the  writer's  situation 
has  been  affected  by  this  particular  manifestation ;  (d} 
the  stage  of  religious  thought  marked  by  these  utterances. 

\b.  Study  in  the  same  way  similar  utterances  found  E.g.,  isa.,chap. 

.....          •    .       12 ;  Ezod.,  chap, 
outside  the  Psalter  and  note  points  of  similarity  and      15- 

difference. 


_  248  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

PSS.  104,  103,  48,         2a.  Examine  certain  praise  songs,  in  which  the  writer 
46, 146. 147. 

seeks  to  find  expression  for  praise  of  God,  on  the  ground 

of  what  he  is,  perhaps,  in  history  or  in  nature ;  in  other 
words,  his  attributes,  analyzing  the  thought  with  refer- 
ence to  (a)  the  writer's  situation  ;  (b)  the  particular  attrJ** 
butes  referred  to;  (c)  the  bearing  upon  the  writer's 
position ;  (d)  the  stage  of  religious  thought  marked  by 
these  utterances. 

E>f;  Job,  chaps.          2<5.  Take   up,  in  the  same   way,   similar  utterances 
isa.  40:  27-31;   outside  the  Psalter,  and  note  points  of   similarity  and 

44 :  34-28 ;  45 :  f 

i8f.  563:7-19.     difference. 

§275.   The  Psalter  as  a  Manual  of  Personal  Communion  with  God. — 
Observe — 

1.  "  The  surprising  variety  of  mood  and  subject  and  occasion  in  the 
Psalms  which  gives  them  their  catholicity,  and,  combined  with  their 
deep  spirituality,  adapts  them  to  be"  a  manual  of  meditation  and 
communion. 

2.  The  strange  and  significant  expression  of  the  community-feeling 
in  the  personified  "  I " — a  fact  which  adds  greatly  to  the  use  of  the  book 
for  practical  and  devotional  purposes. 

3.  The  incomparable  freedom  with  which  the  soul  is  represented  as 
in  converse  with  the  Deity,  laying  bare  its  inmost  feelings. 

§276.  Constructive  Studies.  —  Take  up  the  following 
lines  of  work : 

PSS.  46, 64,  ioa.  10.  An  examination  of  certain  psalms  with  a  view  to 

(a)  the  position  of  the  author ;  (b)  his  relation  of  trust  and 
dependence  on  God ;  (c)  the  analysis  of  this  feeling  ;  (d) 
the  conception  of  God  which  underlies  it. 

jer.  20 : 7-13 ;  isa.,          \b.  A  similar  examination  of  certain  passages  outside 
chap.  26. 

of  the  Psalter. 

PSS.  51, 38, 39-  za.  An  examination  of  certain  psalms,  with  a  view 

to  (a)  the  position  of  the  author ;  (6)  the  consciousness 
before  God  of  the  "exceeding  sinfulness  of  sin,"  and  an 
intense  longing  for  forgiveness ;  (c)  the  analysis  of  this 

Ezra. chap. 9;        feeling:  (d}  the  conception  of  God  which  underlies  it. 
Lev.,  chap.  16; 
isa.,  chap,  i,  zb.  A  similar  examination  of  certain  passages  outside 

6:5;  Am.  5: 

10-15-  of  the  Psalter. 

PSS. 42, 22, 13.  30.  An  examination  of  certain  psalms  with  a  view  to 

(a)  the  psalmist's  position;  (b)  his  longing  for  com- 
munion with  God;  (c)  the  analysis  of  this  feeling;  (d) 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  249 

the  conception  of  God  which  underlies  it;  (e)  the  custom 
referred  to  in  this  psalm  of  praising  God  in  public 
worship. 

3<$.  A  similar  examination  of  certain  passages  outside  Lam.,  chap.  5; 
of  the  Psalter.  1^,63:15-64: 

40.  An  examination  of  certain  psalms  with  a  view  to  PSS.  91,33,73. 
(a)  the  psalmist's  position;  (£)  the  confidence,  security, 
joy,  and  comfort  resulting  from  fellowship  with  God; 
(c)  the  analysis  of  this  feeling ;   (d)  the  underlying  con- 
ception of  God. 

46.  A  similar  examination  of  certain  passages  outside  Deut.  33:26-29; 
of  the  Psalter.  jer.'aoiVis;' 

§277.  The   Significance  of  the  Psalter  as  Related  to 
the  Priestly  System. —  Consider,  now — 

1.  The  various  elements  of  worship  that  have  found  tangible  expres- 
sion in  the  Psalter,  e.  g.,  prayer,  praise,  penitence,  gratitude,  thanks- 
giving, trust,  fellowship   with    God;   and   discover,   if   possible,  any 
fundamental  religious  emotion  which  does  not  find  full  expression  in  it. 

2.  The  full  and  definite  evidence  cited  that  the  Psalter  (a)  had  its 
origin  in  connection  with   the  temple-worship;    (£)  was  largely  the 
creative  work  of  the  priests;   (c)  exercised  great  influence  upon  the 
priests ;  (d}  was  employed  as  a  manual  of  temple-worship ;  (e)  served 
also  as  a  manual  of  private  individual  devotion.     And,  in  view  of  all 
this,  ask  yourself  the  following  questions  : 

(a)  If  all  this  is  a  part  of  the  priestly  system  of  the  Old  Testament, 
what  is  the  conception  of  this  priestly  work  which  we  must  hold? 

(b)  Could  a  priestly  system,  including  as    its  climax   a   hymnal, 
breathing  a  devotion  so  rich,  be  wholly  formal  and  mechanical,  devoid 
of  life  and  of  spiritual  power? 

(c)  Could  such  a  hymnal  have  owed  its  origin  to  a  body  of  priests 
who  were  strangers  to  the  spiritual  and  altogether  slaves  of  the  formal? 

(*/)  Is  there  any  higher  type  of  spirituality  in  the  Old  Testament 
than  that  which  is  thus  represented  by  the  Psalter? 

(e)  Is  it,  then,  true  or  untrue  that  the  highest  type  of  spiritual  life 
known  in  the  Old  Testament  is  of  priestly  origin,  priestly  environment, 
and  on  a. priestly  basis? 

§278.  Literature  to  be  Consulted.8 

H.  EWALD,  Commentary  on  Ike  Psalms  (1835,  3d  ed.  1866,  transl.  1880);  ISAAC 
TAYLOR,  The  Spirit  of  the  Hebrew  Poetry  (1861);  PEROWNE,  The  Book  of  Psalms, 

8  Of  the  extensive  literature  on  the  Psalter  only  the  more  recent  and  important 
works  of  an  exegetical  and  critical  character  are  cited  here. 


25O  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

•with  Introductions  and  Notes,  explanatory  and  critical  (1864,  8th  ed.  1892);  FRANZ 
DELITZSCH,  Biblical  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  (1867,  4th  ed.  1883  [transl.  1887- 
89],  5th  ed.  1894);  The  Psalms  Chronologically  Arranged  by  FOUR  FRIENDS  (1867, 2d 
ed.  1891);  W.  KAY,  The  Psalms,  with  Notes  (1871,  2d  ed.  1874);  A.  C.JENNINGS 
AND  W.  H.  LOWE,  The  Psalms,  with  Introductions  and  Critical  Notes  (1875-77); 
T.  C.  MURRAY,  Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Psalms  (1880);  W.  R. 
SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church,  Lecture  VII  (i88l,2d  ed.  1892); 
C.  H.  TOY,  "  Date  of  the  Korah  Psalms,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  IV 
(1884),  pp.  80-92;  IDEM,  "On  the  Asaph- Psalms,"  ibid.,  Vol.  VI  (1886),  pp.  73-85; 
BINNIE,  The  Psalms,  Their  Origin,  Teachings  and  Use  (1886);  C.  H.  TOY,  "  Rise 
of  Hebrew  Psalm-Writing,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  47-60  ;  T.  K. 
CHEYNE,  The  Book  of  Psalms:  A  New  Translation,  with  Commentary  (1888);  C.  G. 
MONTEFIORE,  "Mystic  Passages  in  the  Psalms,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  1(1889), 
pp.  I43ff.;  A.  NEUBAUER,  "On  the  Titles  of  the  Psalms  According  to  Early  Jewish 
Authorities,"  Studia  Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1890),  pp.  1-58;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1891,  6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  359-91;  A.  F.  KlRK- 
PATRICK,  The  Book  of  Psalms,  with  Introduction  and  Notes,  3  vols.  ("The  Cam- 
bridge Bible,"  1891-1901);  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  Aids  to  the  Devout  Study  of  Criticism 
(1892),  pp.  I29ff.;  W.  T.  DAVISON,  The  Praises  of  Israel  (1893,  2d  ed.  1898);  J. 
P.  PETERS,  "The  Development  of  the  Psalter,"  The  New  World,  1893,  pp.  203  ff.;  A. 
MACLAREN,  The  Psalms  ("Expositor's  Bible,"  1893-94);  J.  SHARPE,  The  Student s 
Handbook  to  the  Psalms  (1894);  T.  K.  ABBOT,  "On  the  Alphabetical  Arrangement 
of  Ps.  IX  and  X,  with  Some  Other  Emendations,"  Zeitschrift  f.  d.  alttest.  Wissenschaft, 
Vol.  XVI  (1896),  pp.  292-94;  J.  W.  BEARDSLEE,  "The  Imprecatory  Psalms,"  Pres- 
byterian and  Reformed  Review,  1897,  pp.  490-505;  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  "The  Book  of 
Psalms ;  Its  Origin  and  its  Relation  to  Zoroastrianism,"  Semitic  Studies  in  Memory 
of  Alexander  Kohut  (1897),  pp.  111-19;  F.  BUHL,  "The  Aid  of  Criticism  in  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Psalms,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp. 
763-75  ;  E.  G.  KING,  The  Psalms  in  Three  Collections:  Translated  with  Notes  (1898); 
J.  WELLHAUSEN,  The  Book  of  Psalms;  A  New  Translation  (HAUPT'S"  Sacred  Books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  1898);  S.  R.  DRIVER,  The  Parallel  Psalter: 
Being  the  Prayerbook  Version  of  the  Psalms  and  a  New  Version  ....  with  an 
Introduction  and  Glossaries  (1898);  J.  ROBERTSON,  The  Poetry  and  Religion  of  the 
Psalms  (1898);  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  The  Christian  Use  of  the  Psalms  (1899);  IDEM, 
"Studies  in  the  Criticism  of  the  Psalms,"  Expositor,  1899,  pp.  252-63,  334-44;  G.  A. 
BARTON,  "  The  Bearing  of  the  Composition  of  the  Psalter  on  the  Date  of  the  44th  Psalm," 
American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  Ill  (1899),  pp.  740-46;  EMILIE  G.  BRIGGS, 
"nbOi"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVI  (1899), 
pp.  1-29  ;  C.  A.  BRIGGS,  General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture  (1899), 
pp.  355-426 ;  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  The  Origin  and  Religious  Contents  of  the  Psalter  in  the 
Light  of  Old  Testament  Criticism  and  the  History  of  Religions  ("  Bampton  Lectures  " 
for  1899);  A.  S.  CARRIER,  "Notes  on  the  Psalms"  American  Journal  of  Semitic 
Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVII  (1900),  pp.  54-59 ;  WRIGHT,  The  Psalms  of 
David  and  the  Higher  Criticism  (1900);  W.  S.  PRATT,  "A  Comparative  Study  of 
Ps.  45,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX  (1900),  pp.  189-218;  D.  SMITH, 
"Songs  of  the  Ascents,"  Expository  Times,  Vol.  XII  (1901),  pp.  62-65,  161-64,414- 
16;  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  118-20,  500-503;  Vol.  XV,  pp.  39-42;  W.  T.  DAVISON,  art. 
"  Psalms,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV  (1902) ;  BUDDE,  art.  "  Hebrew 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  25! 

Poetry,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1902);  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  art.  "Psalms," 
Encyclopedia  Biblica,Vo\,H.l  (1902);  DUHM,  art.  "Poetical  Literature,"  ibid.,  Vol. 
Ill  (1902);  E.  G.HiRSCH,  "Note  on  Psalms  34  and  25,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic 
Languages  and  Literatures,  XVIII  (1902),  pp.  167-73  5  W.  W.  MARTIN,  "A  Psalmist's 
Epithalamion,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XIX  (1902),  pp.  49-51;  P.  HAUPT,  "The  Poetic  Form  of 
the  First  Psalm,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XIX  (1903),  pp.  129-42;  C.  MARTIN,  "The  Impreca- 
tions in  the  Psalms,"  Princeton  Theological  Review,  Vol.  I  (1903),  pp.  535~53 ; 
J.  W.  THIRTLE,  The  Titles  of  the  Psalms:  Their  Nature  and  Meaning  Explained 
(1904);  T.  K.  CHEYNE,  The  Book  of  Psalms,  Translated  from  a  Revised  Text  with 
Notes  and  Introduction  (1904);  J.  E.  McFADYEN,  The  Messages  of  the  Psalmists: 
The  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  Arranged  in  Their  Natural  Grouping  and  Freely 
Rendered  in  Paraphrase  (1904). 

J.  G.  VON  HERDER,  Vom  Geist  der  ebrdischen  Poesie  (1782-83);  HITZIG,  Die 
Psalmen  (1835,  2d  ed.,  1863-65);  J.  OLSHAUSEN,  Die  Psalmen  erktdrt  ("  Kurzge- 
fasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament,"  1853);  T.  NOLDEKE,  Die 
alttestamentliche  Literatur  (1868),  pp.  117-42;  C.^nwi,Abfassungszeit  und  Abschluss 
des  Psalters  zur  Prufung  der  Frage  nach  Makkabderpsalmen  historisch-kritisch 
untersucht  (1869);  E.  REUSS,  Le  Psautier,  ou  le  livre  de  cantiques  de  la  synagogue 
(1879);  LAGARDE,  Orientalia,  Vol.  II  (1880),  pp.  13-27;  M.  KOPFSTEIN,  Die  Asaph- 
Psalmen  untersucht  (1881);  F.GlESEBRECHT,  "Uber  die  Abfassungszeit  des  Psalters," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  I  (1881),  pp.  276-332;  H. 
GRAETZ,  Kritischer  Commentar  zu  den  Psalmen  nebst  Text  und  Uebersetzung 
(1882);  F.  BAETHGEN,  "Der  textkritische  Wert  der  alten  Uebersetzungen  zu  den 
Psalmen,"  Jahrbiicher  der  prot.  Theologie,  Vol.  VIII  (1882),  pp.  405-59,  593-667; 
BLEEK-WELLHAUSEN,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (5th  ed.  1886),  pp.  443-75; 
HUFFELD-NowACK,  Die  Psalmen  ubersetzt  und  ausgelegt  (1888) ;  R.  SMEND, 
"Ueber  das  Ich  der  Psalmen,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft, 
Vol.  VIII  (1888),  pp.  49-147;  KESSLER,  Die  asaphitische  Psalmengruppe  unter- 
sucht (1889);  RIEHM,  Einltitung  in  das  Alte  Testament,  Vol.  II  (1890),  pp.  171- 
205;  W.  CAMPE,  Das  Verhdltniss  Jeremias  zu  den  Psalmen  (1891) ;  J.  MiJHLMANN, 
Zur  Frage  nach  den  makkabdischen  Psalmen  (1891);  C.  H.  CORNILL,  Einleitung 
in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891),  pp.  205-20;  E.  SELLIN,  Disputatio  de  origine  carmi- 
num  quae  primus  psalterii  liber  continet  (1892);  F.  BAETHGEN,  Die  Psalmen  uber- 
setzt  und  erkldrt  ("  Handkommentar  z.  Alten  Testament,"  1892,  2d  ed.  1897);  W. 
STAERK,  "  Zur  Kritik  der  Psalmeniiberschriften,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche 
Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XII  (1892),  pp.  91-151;  A.  RAHLFS,  *^S  and  "\^y  in  den  Psalmen 
(1892);  J.  BACHMANN,  Praeparation  und  Kommentar  zu  den  Psalmen,  mit  genauen 
Analysen  und  getreuer  Uebersetzung  fur  Gymnasiasten,  Sludirende  und  Candidaten 
(1892) ;  B.  STADE,  "  Die  messianische  Hoffnung  im  Psalter,"  Zeitschrift  fur  Theologie 
und  Kirche,  Vol.  II  (1892),  pp.  369-413  (reprinted  in  Akademische  Reden  und  Abhand- 
lungen  [1899],  pp.  37-76);  KuENEN-MATTHES,  Historisch-kritische  Einleitung  in 
die  Bucher  des  Alten  Testaments,  Vol.  Ill  (1893,  German  transl.  1894),  pp.  1-57; 
E.  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1893),  pp.  393-406;  WILDEBOER, 
Die  Litteratur  des  Alten  Testaments  (1894),  pp.  388-403;  W.  DIEHL,  Erkldrung 
von  Ps.  47  (1894);  G.  BEER,  Individual-  und  Gemeinde-Psalmen  (1894);  B.  JACOB, 
"Beitrage  zu  einer  Einleitung  in  die  Psalmen,"  Zeitschrift  f.d.  alttest.  Wissenschaft, 
Vol.  XVI  (1896),  pp.  129-81,  265-91;  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  48-80,  263-79;  Vol.  XVIII,  pp. 
99-120;  Vol.  XX,  pp.  49-80;  J.  K.  ZENNER,  Die  Chorgesdnge  im  Buche  der  Psalmen 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(1896) ;  F.  COBLENZ,  Ueber  das  betende  Ich  in  den  Psalmen  (1897) ;  W.  STAERK,  "  Die 
Gottlosen  in  den  Psalmen,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1897,  pp.  449-88;  C.  H. 
CORNILL,  Die  Psalmen  in  der  Weltlitteratur  (1898);  D.  LEIMDORFER,  Das  Psalter- 
Ego  in  den  Ich-Psalmen:  Beitrag  zur  wissenschaftlichen  Psalmenforschung  (1898); 
BUCHLER,  "Zur  Geschichte  der  Tempelmusik  und  der  Tempelpsalmen,"  Zeitschrift 
f.  d.  alttest.  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XIX  (1899),  pp.  96  ff.;  W.  RiEDEL,  "Zur  Redaktion 
des  Psalters,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XIX  (1899),  pp.  169-72;  A.  MERX,  Ps.  IX  und  X  und 
andres  Maccabaeische  (1899);  H.  KESSLER,  Die  Psalmen  ("Kurzgefasster  Kommen- 
tar  zu  den  heiligen  Schriften,"  1899);  J.  WELLHAUSEN,  "Bemerkungen  zu  den 
Psalmen,"  Skizzen  itnd  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  VI  (1899),  pp.  163-87;  B.  DUHM,  Die 
Psalmen  erklart  ("Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament,  1899);  IDEM, 
Die  Psalmen  iibersetzt  (1899);  J.  KOBERLE,  Die  Tempelsdnger  im  Alten  Testament 
(1899);  ROTHSTEIN,  "  Ps.  78,  ein  Zeuge  fur  d.  Jahwistische  Gestalt  der  Exodus- 
Tradition,"  Zeitschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  Theologie,  1900,  No.  4;  GRIMME,  "Was 
bedeutet  tTftjpgn  Tip?"  Orientalistische  Literatur-Zeitung,  Vol.  IV  (1901),  pp. 
180-82;  COUARD,  "Behandlung  und  Losung  des  Problems  der  Theodice"e  in  den 
Ps.  37,  39  und  73,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  Vol.  XL VII  (1901),  pp. 
110-24;  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes  (1901),  pp. 
635-72 ;  E.  KAUTZSCH,  Die  Poesie  und  die  poetischen  Biicher  des  Alten  Testaments 
(1902);  MATTHES,  "Die  Psalmen  und  d.  Tempeldienst,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttesla- 
mentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XXII  (1902),  pp.  65-82;  GRIMME,  Psalmenprobleme : 
Untersuchungen  uber  Metrik,  Strophik  und  Paseq  des  Psalmenbuches  (1902). 

§  279.   Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Is  the  Psalter  rightly  classified  as  a. priestly  product?     Consider 
the  significance  of  the  fact  that  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  prophetic 
and  wisdom  material  as  well  as  priestly.     Can  it  be  said  to  belong  to 
any  one  of  these  three  classes  of  Old  Testament  literature,  or  does  it 
belong,  rather,  to  all  of  them  ?     Might  it  not  properly  be  a  class  by 
itself,  viz.,  devotional  literature? 

2.  Consider  the  various  possible  methods  of  classifying  the  Psalms; 
e.  g.,  as  to  (a)  their  subject-matter  (see  Driver,  Introduction,  pp.  368  f.), 
(t>)  their  spirit  and  tone,  (c)  the  time  of  their  origin. 

3.  Of   what  value  is  the  Psalter  as  a  source  of  information  con- 
cerning Israel's  history  ?     What  knowledge  of  Israel's  past  history  does 
it  reveal  ?     What  can   be  legitimately   inferred  from  a  study  of  the 
individual  psalms  as  to  the  historical  conditions  amid  which  they  were 
composed  ?     What  light  does  the  fact  of  the  existence  and  use  of  the 
Psalter  throw  upon  the  life  and  spirit  of  the  post-exilic  Jews? 

4.  In  a  study  of  the  origin  of  the  Psalter  what  is  the  significance  of 
(a)  the  presence  within  it  of  such  groups  as  the  Korahite  psalms,  the 
Asaphite  psalms,  the  Pilgrim  psalms  ;  (b]  the  groups  of  Yahwistic  and 
Elohistic  psalms ;  (c)  the  division  into  five  books ;  (d}  the  grouping  of 
the    "  Davidic "    psalms  ?     On  the  basis  of  these  and   other  similar 


THE    HYMNAL    LITERATURE  2$ 3 

phenomena,  can  any  history  of  the  growth  of  the  Psalter  through  the 
grouping  of  various  earlier  collections  be  satisfactorily  traced  ? 

5.  Take  up  the  so-called  "Imprecatory  Psalms"  and  study  them 
in  the  light  of  the  following  considerations  :  (a)  the  times  to  which 
they  belong,  when  moral  and  spiritual  conceptions  were  still  in  a  more 
or  less  primitive  stage  and  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  was  not  yet  shed 
abroad ;  (£)  the  great  provocation  which  called  forth  these  utterances, 
the  feeling  of  injury,  oppression,  and  insult  revealed  in  them  ;  (^)  the 
tendency  of  human  nature  to  seek  revenge  ;  (d}  the  deep  sense  of 
justice  out  of  which  they  spring,  the  feeling  that  such  sins  must  not 
and  cannot  go  unpunished,  that  the  vindication  of  Jehovah's  character 
demands  the  infliction  of  drastic  penalties  upon  the  notoriously  wicked  ; 
(e)  the  necessity  that  this  infliction  of  punishment  should  take  place 
here  and  now,  since  the  thought  of  a  future  life  and  a  future  judgment 
had  not  yet  developed  ;  (/)  the  doctrine  that  prosperity  was  a  sign  of 
the  divine  favor,  while  misfortune  and  suffering  was  manifest  evidence 
of  and  chastisement  for  sin. 

6.  Make  a  comparison  of  the  Psalms  of  Solomon  with  the  Old 
Testament  Psalter,  and  note  the  points  of  similarity  and  difference  in 
the  two  collections. 

On  the  Psalms  of  Solomon  see  especially  R.  H.CHARLES,  art.  "Apocalyptic 
Literature,"  §77-85,  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  RYLE  AND  JAMES,  The  Psalms  of  the 
Pharisees  (1901);  W.  FRANKENBERG,  Die  Datierung  der  Psalmen  Salomos:  ein  Bei- 
trag  zur  jiidischen  Geschichte  ("Beihefte  zur  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche 
Wissenschaft,"  1896). 

7.  Compare   the   old    Babylonian    penitential  psalms  with    corre- 
sponding psalms  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  reference  to  such  matters 
as  (a)  their  idea  of  God,  (b)  their  conception  of  sin,  (c)  their  longing 
for  forgiveness,  (</)  their  idea  of  atonement. 

On  the  Babylonian  psalms  see  especially:  H.  ZIMMERN,  Babylonische  Buss- 
psalmen,  umschrieben,  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  (1885)  ;  R.  BRUNNOW,  "Assyrian  Hymns," 
Zeitschrift  fur  Assyriologie,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  1-40,  225-58;  Vol.  V,  pp.  55-80;  T.  G. 
PINCHES,  "  An  Erechite's  Lament,"  Records  of  the  Past  (New  Series),  Vol.  I,  pp.  84  f.; 
R.  F.  HARPER,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature  (1901),  pp.  429-44;  J.  BAHR, 
Die  babylonischen  Busspsalmen  und  das  Alte  Testament  (1903);  W.  CASPARI,  "Die 
Religion  in  den  assyrisch-babylonischen  Busspsalmen,"  Beitrage  zur  forderung 
Christlicher  Theologie,  Vol.  VII,  No.  4  (1903). 


PART  SEVENTH 


THE  PERMANENT  VALUE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY 
ELEMENT 

XIX.     THE   ESSENTIAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF   THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


THE    ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT. 

§  280.  The  Priestly  Element  Had  Serious  Limitations. 
—  The  agencies,  through  which  the  Spirit  of  God  worked 
upon  Israel  during  long  centuries  of  guidance  were 
human,  and  therefore  imperfect.  The  prophet,  with  all 
his  enthusiasm  and  enlarged  vision,  suffered  serious  limita- 
tions. The  sage,  in  spite  of  his  careful,  methodical  and, 
at  times,  scientific  observation  and  study,  fell  far  short  of 
reaching  even  his  own  ideals.  In  what  way  were  the 
priests  limited  ?  Consider  the  following  : 

1.  There  were  granted  to  the  priests,  as   such,   no 
great  and  uplifting  visions  of  the  nation's  future  glory. 
In    later   days,    to   be   sure,   priests    like    Ezekiel    and 

Zechariah  were  given  such  inspiration  :    but  they  and 

J    , 
others  like  them  were  no  longer  simply  priests  :    they 

were  prophets.  The  lack  of  the  presence  of  the  Spirit 
in  their  souls  placed  the  ordinary  priests  in  a  class 
essentially  different  from  that  of  the  prophets. 

2.  The  priest  was  by  the  very  nature  of  his  profession 
a  literalist,  and  consequently  he  was  forever  denied  the 
strength  and  freshness  which  those  may  have  who  rise 
higher  than  the  letter  and  see  what  is  above  and  beyond  it. 
This  fact  will  account  for  much  that  is  distinctly  disap- 
pointing in  the  priestly  element. 

3.  Since  the  priestly  element   represented  worship, 
and  for  that  reason  (a)  came  out  of  an  early  paganism, 

and  (fr)  was  constantly  being  drawn  backward  into  that 

J 
same  paganism,  or  into  other  forms  of  heathen  thought 

with  which  the  sacrificial  system  was  always  in  more  or 

, 
less  close  contact,  it  was  forced  to  carry  a  heavy  burden 

made  up  of  corrupt  and  injurious  notions  and  prac- 
tices, which  even  long  culture  would  not  and  could 
not  shake  off.  From  all  this  prophetism  was  practically 
free. 

257 


Ezek.  i  :  1-3  MS 

chaps.'4o-48  ; 
Zech.  1:7-6:8. 


cf.  Bxoa.,  chaps. 
chads'.  x-J.'V, 
chaps.  3,  4*. 


Kings  3:3;  xa: 
25-33  ;  16  :  31  ff.  ; 
a  Kings  16:11- 

Ezek.  8:7-13; 
Jcr.  44:17-19. 


258  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Exod.  33:1-6,33-         4.  All  the  ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  masses 

1-3, 13^4; 'HOS.'   were  borne   by  the  priestly  class,  rather  than    by  the 

isa.'a8?7f!  '  '  prophets.      The   priest,   if   he    remained   a    priest,  was 

compelled  to  live  and  work  with  the  masses  in  the  midst 

of  all  that  was  degrading. 

Lev. 8:1-9:24;  5-  The  priest  had  to  do  chiefly  with  the  outer  form 

of  truth,  the  symbol ;  and  while  this  was  supposed  to 

zech. 7:4, 5;  isa.   represent  the  inner  and  essential  thought,  it  not  infre- 

58*  3ff     13  f 

quently  failed  to  maintain  any  real  connection  with  that 
thought. 

Zech.  6:n;  Lev.  6.  The  priest  was  intensely  ambitious  of  power  and 
a  king!4!  1:4-30.  wealth,  and  the  fact  that,  in  time,  the  order  gained 
control  of  state  and  church  is  evidence  of  success  which 
in  itself  was  detrimental  to  true  and  sincere  effort. 

Numb.,  chap.  19;  7.  The  teachings  of  the  priest  were  more  subjective 
''  and  less  direct  than  those  of  the  prophet,  in  that  the 
teaching  of  the  latter  was  given  to  the  people  directly 
through  the  spoken  or  written  word,  while  much  of  the 
priest's  teaching  was  dependent  upon  the  worshiper's 
own  interpretation  of  the  symbol  employed  in  the  ritual. 

a  Kings  aa :  3-23 :   A  strong  spirit  of  conservatism  was  always  in  control; 
35;  Neh.  8:1- 
10:39;  Mai.  i:   progress  was  secured  most  frequently  by  revolution  from 

6-3 ;  Q. 

the  outside,  in  which  the  prophets  took  leading  part. 
Under  the  circumstances  the  priestly  teaching  was  always 
slow  to  penetrate  the  nation's  heart. 

§281.    The    Characteristics   of    the   Priestly   System, 
regarded  as  a  whole,  may  be  briefly  studied  : 

1.  Its  spirit  not  peculiar. — What  is  to  be  said  of  the 
spirit  of  this  system  when  compared  with  that  of  other 
priestly  systems?     Wherein,  if  at  all,  is  a  distinction  to 

Lev.  17:6;  ao:a6;   be  found?     Is  not  the  spirit,  in  this  case,  just  what  the 

chap.  16126:  .  1-1  t.  •          .1 

ii  f.  true   spirit   of    worship    always    proves  to  be,  viz.,   the 

simplest  and  most  common  effort  to  come  into  close 
touch  with  the  higher  powers  ? 

2.  Its  form  not  peculiar. — But  what  may  be  said  of  the 
outer  form  of  this   priestly  system  ?     Does  it  not  have 

cf. §§73:4,6:95:   much  in  common  likewise  with  other  systems?     What  is 

MI  :8!  9;' 135':  7!   peculiar   to    it   so    far  as  form  is  concerned?     Altar? 

temple?  sacrifice?  feast?  music  and  prayer  ?  priest  and 

holy   order?      Are    not    the    Urim    and    Thummim  of 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       2 59 

foreign  origin  ?  How  about  sacrifices  of  salt  and  meal  ? 
the  clean  and  unclean  ?  Can  you  find  among  the 
institutions  of  the  Israelitish  priestly  system  one  which 
does  not  have  an  analogue  in  other  religions  ? 

3.  Its   relation   to   other  priestly   systems.  —  Consider, 
now,  whether  or  not  it  is  true  that  in  its  priestly  system 
the    Hebrew   religion    touches    other   ancient    religions 
most   closely.     Have    other   religions    prophetism    and 
prophecy  ?      Or  is  it  not  rather  soothsaying  and  divina- 
tion ?     Is  the  Hebrew  priestly  system  as  different  from 
other  priestly  systems  as  Hebrew  prophecy  is  different 
from  other  systems  of  prophecy  ? 

4.  The  system  and  the  people.  —  Is  it  true  that  at  first  Amosa:6ff., 
the  people  were   more  in  sympathy  with   their  priestly     4f.;"s:4ff.'  at- 

2y  i   7  •  'O  ^*  t 

system  than  with  the  prophetic  ideas  which  were  pro-      EOS. a:n;  3  =  4; 

*  4:n-i4;8:nff. 

posed  in  opposition  ?  Did  the  nation  ever  struggle 
against  the  priest  as  it  struggled  against  the  prophet  ? 
Does  this  mean  that  the  priestly  conception  and  expres- 
sion were  something  less  alien  to  the  hearts  of  the 
people? 

5.  The  period  of  its  dominance. — To  what  extent  were  Jer.  29:35  ff.jao: 
priest  and  prophet  in  conflict  with  each   other?     And      *<>«';  HOS.  6:4- 

r  10 ;  5 : i ;  Isa.  i : 

why?     Is  it  the  priest  whom  the  prophet  always  holds      «"I7;  287; 

responsible  for  the  people's  sins  ?      Which  of  the  two 

orders  represented   the  old  ?    which  the  new  ?     Which 

represented  form  ?    which  spirit  ?     Which  held   back  ? 

which  pushed  forward  ?     How  important  in  the  history 

of  the  nation  was  this  struggle  between    prophet   and 

priest  ?  which  conquered  ?  when  ?  why  ? 

6.  Its  chronological  relation  to  prophecy.  —  When  in  the  Jer.  i :  i ;  Ezek. 
history  of  the    priestly  system    was    its    progress    most      chaps.  40-48; 

pronounced?      How  explain  the  fact  that  in  the  later      loff-zech. 6: 

gff;Mal.  i  :6ff; 
periods  of  prophecy  the  prophets  were  all  priests  ?     But      a:  1-9. 

what  became  of  the  great  teachings  of  the  prophets 
when  prophetism  as  a  movement  had  died  out  and  the 

priestly  order  was  in  power?     Was  this  teaching  lost?  Dcut., chaps. 6- 

J  xi ;  Lev.  23:32; 

or  was  it  appropriated  by  the  priests  and  incorporated      25: sgff;  26:14- 

into  their  system  ?  Of  what  importance  was  the  legacy 
left  by  prophecy  at  its  death  ?  Are  priest  and  prophet 
now  one,  the  priest  being  the  spokesman  ?  But  why  did 


26O 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Bzod.  20 : 34 ; 

Deut.  12 : 2-4. 
Deut.  18 : 1-8 ; 

Numb.  18: 1-7; 

Lev.  21 : 10-15. 


Cf.  §§76;  80; 
82:4. 


Cf.  §§  60,  62,  66, 
69. 


Cf.  chaps,  ii,  iii, 
iv,  and  §§84,92, 
97,  104. 


Ley.,  chaps.  4,  5, 
6,  7,  xa,  14, 15, 
21 ;  Numb., 
chaps.  6,  8 


Cf.  §§  270-77. 


prophecy  die  ?  And  how  did  it  happen  that  the  priest, 
who  had  always  opposed  the  prophet  and  his  work,  took 
up  that  work  when  there  were  no  longer  prophets  to 
conduct  it  ? 

7.  Its  variations  and  contradictions. —  Does   not  this 
priestly  element  seem  to  be  full  of  contradictions  ?     But 
what  is  the  nature  of  these  contradictions  ?     Is  it  that  of 
change  from  time  to  time  ?     Is  it  the  result  of  adjust- 
ment   to   great   changes    in    national    life?     What,   for 
example,  led  to  the  change  from  the  system  in  which 
worship  was  distributed  throughout  the  nation  to  that 
of  centralization  at  one  place?      Why  was  worship  in 
Babylon    during    the   exile    impossible  ?     Explain    the 
recentralization  later  in   the  second  temple;    and  still 
later  its  redistribution    in    the   synagogues.      All    this 
points  to  what  characteristics  besides  those  of  flexibility 
and  capability  of  adjustment  ? 

8.  Its   autocratic   and    democratic    character. —  Con- 
sider  the   change   in    character   that   has    taken    place 
between  the  early  days  when  every  man  might  be  his 
own  priest,  and  the  last  days  which  witnessed  the  firm 
establishment    of   the    hierarchy.      How   is   this   to   be 
accounted  for? 

9.  Its  purity,    impurity,    and  artificiality. — Compare 
this  priestly  system  (a)  when  it  was  mingled  with  all  the 
impurities  of  Canaanitish  worship,  and  (£)  when  it  has 
been  purged   and   purified   of  its   dross   by  the   fire  of 
captivity;    and    still    again    (c)    when    it    has    become 
one    of   the  most   artificial   rituals    ever  accepted    by  a 
nation.     What  is  to  be  said  of  these  different  stages  ? 

10.  Its  narrowness  and  breadth. —  Compare,  again,  the 
character  of  this  system  in  its  later  days  when,  from  one 
point  of  view,  it  was  most  narrow  and  artificial;  while, 
from  another,  it  was  most  broad  and  spiritual  ;  since,  at 
a  time  when  animals  were  being  slain  by  tens  of 
thousands,  and  the  body  was  being  worn  out  with 
worship  and  purifications,  then,  and  not  till  then,  did 
this  religious  system  give  birth  to  the  Psalter,  which 
contains  the  greatest  examples  of  higher  spiritual  con- 
templation and  communion  with  God  that  religion  has 
ever  produced. 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       26 1 

§  282.  The  Purpose  or  Function  of  the  Priestly  System. 
— Which  of  these  words  is  to  be  employed,  "purpose" 
or  "  function  "  ?  What  is  the  point  of  view  involved  in 
each  ? 

1.  Its  purpose  or  function  in  general. — What  may  be 

said  as  to  the  purpose  or  function  of  the  priestly  system   cf.\\. 
in  any  religion  ?     What  other  elements,  aside  from  the 
priestly  element,  are  required  to  make  up  religion,  or  to 
constitute  the  religious  spirit  ?     What   is   the   relation 
sustained  by  the  priestly  element  to  the  others  ? 

2.  Its  purpose  or  function  for  the  individual. —  (a)  Was 
there  a  meaning  in  the  various  acts  of  worship  for  each 

and  every  person  who  participated  in  the  worship  ?  Did  cf. §§84:3;  87:2; 
oil  and  salt,  blood  and  fat,  meal  and  incense,  represent 
ideas  ?  What,  in  the  case  of  each  of  these  ?  Did  these 
ideas,  thus  symbolically  represented,  come  from  men's 
hearts  and  express  various  phases  of  their  feelings  ?  (b) 
In  what  sense  was  the  temple  a  laboratory  in  which  men 
were  required  to  go  through  a  certain  process,  doing  the 
detail  of  the  work,  every  detail  representing  an  experi- 
ence of  one  or  another  kind  in  the  religious  life  ? 
Would  the  doing  of  these  things  impress  upon  the  doer 
the  meaning  which  they  were  supposed  to  represent  ? 
What  was  the  answer  to  the  oft-recurring  questions  : 
"  Why  do  I  wash  ?  Why  do  I  touch  no  unclean  thing  ? 
Why  do  I  observe  the  sabbath?"  Was  it  not  in  each 
case  a  great  truth  ?  Was  the  act,  therefore,  a  lesson 
repeated  every  time  the  act  was  performed  ?  But  would 
many,  perhaps  the  great  majority,  perform  the  act 
without  asking  the  question,  and  so  without  being 
conscious  of  any  lesson  involved  in  it  ?  Is  it  just  so  in 
acts  of  worship  today  ?  Does  this  fact,  in  itself,  affect 
essentially  the  point  in  question  ? 

3.  Its  purpose  or  function  for  the  nation. —  (a)  Did  the 

national  idea  precede  or  follow  that  of  the  individual?  Am.  a:6;  s:i«.; 

,,,.  »._»».        n  r       i  Exod.  20:2ff. ; 

When    did   the    first   conception    of   the    individual    as      Jer.  31:39*-; 
distinguished  from  the  nation  begin  to  appear  ?     Did 
the  idea  of  individualism  have  large  development  in  Old 
Testament    times  ?    or   even    in    the    first   centuries    of 
Christianity?     Was  the  priestly  system,  on  the  whole, 


262  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMEFT 

better  adapted  to  individual  or  national  life?  (b)  What, 
so  far  as  concerns  relationship  to  the  deity,  would  be  the 
result  for  the  nation,  of  a  regular  and  sincere  adoption 
of  the  ceremonial  ?  How  different  would  the  effect  of 
observing  the  ritual  be  from  that  of  attending  church  in 
more  modern  times?  Would  it,  in  some  sense,  bring 
them  into  touch  with  God,  and  under  His  influence  ? 
Was  it,  after  all,  a  very  natural  expression  of  man's 
relation  to  God  ?  (c)  Are  we  to  suppose  that  sacrifice 
(which  may  here  be  taken  as  representing  the  priestly 
system)  from  the  beginning  was  something  established 
by  God  himself  and  suggested  by  him  directly  to  man  ? 
Lev.,  chaps.  1-7.  Is  this  not  the  way  in  which  the  Priest  Code  everywhere 
c/.  §ai6,  (4).  regards  sacrifice?  In  other  words,  as  something  given 
by  God  to  man  through  Moses  ?  Does  the  Priest  Code 
recognize  the  existence  of  a  priestly  system  before 
Moses's  day  ?  or  among  other  nations  ?  How,  then,  is 
this  presentation  of  the  subject  to  be  understood?  (d) 
But  in  what  way  are  we  to  account  for  the  universal 
prevalence  of  sacrifice  among  the  nations  ?  What  is  to 
be  said  for  and  against  the  hypothesis  of  a  primitive 
revelation  to  which  all  this  points  back  ?  Is  it  easier  to 
understand  this  common  form  of  worship,  viz.,  sacrifice, 
as  a  natural  expression,  on  the  part  of  man,  of  the 
relation  which  he  believes  himself  to  sustain  to  the 
higher  powers  ?  In  this  case  what  was  the  nature  of  the 
feeling  which  originally  prompted  the  action,  and 
controlled  the  devotee  in  the  process  of  the  action  ? 
Lev., chap.  16 ;  4:  (*)  Was  it  his  sense  of  God's  holiness  and  his  own  sin  ? 
iiif9;Rumb.  his  feeling  that  he  deserved  death?  Did  he  therefore 
15^22-31;  19;  present  animals  in  sacrifice  as  his  own  substitute  ?  What 
is  meant  in  this  connection  by  the  use  of  the  words 
"piacular,"  "propitiation  ?"  But  can  we  suppose  that 
the  men  of  primitive  times,  savages,  had  reached  so 
advanced  a  point  of  philosophical  reflection  ?  May  we 
perhaps  suppose  that  this  act,  which  constitutes  so  large 
an  element  in  all  priestly  systems,  had  its  origin  and 
abiding  function  in  a  desire  to  acknowledge  dependence 
upon  the  higher  power  and  to  render  to  it  homage  ? 
Would  it  be  far  removed  from  this  to  say  that  the  chief 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       263 

purpose  of  the  worshiper,  whether  nation  or  individual,   Lev.  4:30, 26, 31, 

35!  5 :  5^-1  *3> 

was   to   gain    the    favor    of   the   god,    or   to    avert    his      i8f.;  Numb. 

19: 13. 
displeasure?     (/)  What  is  involved  in  that  other  expla-  Gen.  i8:x-8;  31: 

,.    ,      -     j      iU  ,  ...          .          ,  .         54;Bxod.i8: 

nation  which  finds  the  essence  of  sacrifice  in  the  meal      ia;Numb.aa: 
which  followed,  a  communion  of  man  and  God  in  food  ?      (>I>'T,  i  skm. 

i  :3ff. :  9:  I2f.; 

Did  not  eating  together  constitute  a  covenant  or  bond      16:2,5:30:29; 
of  friendship?     God  and  the  tribe  being  one,  would  not  Lev. 8:'i5, 34;  ' 

,  .,  ,          9:18;  17: 6. 

this  union  be  strengthened,  or,  if  temporarily  strained,   Lev.  1:3-9. 

be  restored  by  eating  food  in  common  ?     And  did  not 

the  god  receive  his  share  in  the  blood  poured  upon  the 

altar  ?      In    this   case    how   explain    the   whole    burnt 

offering,  all   of    which  was  given   to  the   god  ?      How 

much  change  in  this  conception  of  sacrifice  was  involved 

in  the  advance  from  nomadic  life,  when  all  property  was 

held  in  common  by  the  tribe,  to  the  agricultural  life, 

when  men   began  to  hold  personal  property  ?      (g)  In 

any  case,  is  it  not  true  that  in  Old  Testament  times  the 

idea  most  in  vogue  is  that  the  priestly  system,  with  the 

act  of  sacrifice   as  its  central   feature,  represented   the 

means  by  which  a  man  might  make  a.  gift  to  God?     Is  it  Numb.,  chap.  28 ; 

J  Exod.  30 : 7  f. 

anywhere  suggested  that  the  giving  of  gifts  to  God  is 
something  displeasing  to  him  ?    Is  there  great  difference  Mic.  e :  e-s ;  Amos 
of  opinion,  on  the  other  hand,  as  to  the  particular  thing      6:6. 
which  shall  be  given  ? 

4.  Its  function  in  connection  with  the  messianic  idea. — 
(a]  In  what  sense  is  the  word  "messianic"  to  be  taken  ? 
What  are  some  of  the  more  important  elements  of  which 
it  is  constituted?     In  how  far  may  the  word  "eschato- 
logical  "  be  used  as  a  synonym  ?     Who  are  indicated  as 
the   conspicuous   representatives  of   this  movement  or 
element,  (i)  during  the  existence  of  the  kingdom;  (2)   isa.g:6f. 
during  the  Babylonian   exile?     (b)  When  Jerusalem   is  isa.  49:1-6;  s«: 
rebuilt  and  the  second  temple  is  erected — that  is,  at  the 
time  of  the  restoration  —  what  official  figure  comes  into   Hag.  1:1,12. 14; 

2:3,4;  Zech., 

especial  prominence?     At  the  same  time  what  feeling      chap. 3. 
becomes  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  people?     As  a  Lev., chap.  16; 

io:i6ff. ; 

consequence  of  this   overwhelming  sense   of  sin,  what      Numb.  19:1-9. 
new  importance  attaches  to  the  idea  of  atonement?     (c} 

Were   the    people    of   the    restoration    disappointed    in   Hag.  2 : 6-9, 20- 

23;  Zech.  6: 15; 
their  failure   to    see    the    fulfilment    of    the    prophetic      chap.  8. 


264  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

promises  concerning  the  re-establishment  of  the  king- 
dom and  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  ?  How  did  they, 

Mai.  1:1-14;  a:      after  awhile,  account  for  the  refusal  or  failure  of  God  to 

c/. §§38,15;  92,     fulfil  these  promises?     Regarding  themselves  as  respon- 
sible, what  steps  were  taken  to  force  God  to  bring  these 

Mai.  3:1-6.  things  to  pass  ?    How  did  this  affect  the  priestly  system  ? 

In  what  way,  also,  the  further  development  of  the 
messianic  idea? 

5.  Its  function  in  relation  to  the  introduction  of  Greek 
thought. —  What,  in  general,  was  the  effect  upon  the 
eastern  world  of  the  fall  of  the  Persian  empire  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  Greeks,  attained  through  Alexander 
the  Great?  How  was  Greek  influence  exerted  upon 
these  eastern  nationalities  ?  To  what  extent  was  the 

c/. §51.  Jewish    nation    affected    by    Greece?      What   were   the 

essential  contributions  received  by  Judaism  from  Greece? 
To  what  extent  did  Judaism  successfully  resist  the 
movement  which  exerted  so  strong  an  influence  upon  all 
other  nations  with  which  it  came  in  contact?  What 
enabled  Judaism  to  withstand  this  influence  ?  What 
were  the  elements  in  the  priestly  system  that  enabled  it 
to  render  this  very  striking  service  ? 

c/.  §197,3.  §  283-   The  Essential  Thought  of  the  Priestly  Element 

may  be  grouped  around  three  or  four  subjects.  These 
are,  God,  Man,  Sin,  and  the  Church. 

i.  God. —  (a)  Does  not  the  priestly  thought  of  God, 
after  all,  represent  the  whole  Old  Testament,  except  the 
portions  known  as  Wisdom  ? 

(b)  How,  and  in  what  sense,  does  the  priestly  element 
include  the  prophetic? 

(c)  Can  a  distinction  be  made  between  the  priestly 
and  the  prophetic  conceptions  of  God  in  the  periods  that 
precede  the  captivity  in  Babylon  ?  in  the  periods  that 
follow  the  captivity  ? 

(</)  What  stages  of  growth  may  be  discovered  in  the 

Cf.  §§  18, 38, 49.      priestly  conception  of  God  before  its  incorporation  of 

the  prophetic  ?  likewise,  after  the  incorporation  ?     Was 

the  later  conception  more  strongly  priestly  or  prophetic  ? 

(e)  What  distinct  conceptions,  if  any,  are  to  be  found 

in    the   Wisdom   element?      Are    they    older   than   the 

priestly,  or  later  ?  higher  or  lower  ? 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       265 

(_/")  Are  holiness  and  majesty  perhaps  the  two  pre- 
dominant conceptions  of  God  in  the  priestly  element? 
What   others    might   be   mentioned   as   almost   equally 
prominent  ?     Was  either  of  these  attributes  a  part  of  the 
primitive  Semitic  conception  of  God?     At  what  time  in 
Greece's  history  did  they  begin  to  be  recognized  ?    How  Lev.,  chaps.  8,  9, 
is  the  holiness  of  God  symbolically  represented  in  the  Exod.  14:15^-18*; 
Levitical  ritual  ?     How  is  the  majesty  of  God  indicated, 
especially  in  the  Priest  Code?     Upon  what  aspects  of  PSS.  23,  90,  91, 
deity  do  the  Psalms  dwell  most  earnestly  ? 

2.  Man.  —  (a)  In  what  way  is  the  priestly  element 
especially  concerned  with  man?  (i)  as  an  individual?  c/.  §  283,  a,  3. 
or  (2)  as  representing  the  human  race?  or  (3)  as  he 
appears,  earlier,  in  the  Israelitish  nation  and  later,  in  the 
Judaistic  church  ?  What  is  the  position  of  the  individual, 
in  contrast  with  that  of  the  nation,  as  represented  in  the 
Levitical  ritual?  in  the  Psalter? 

(b)  Is  it  through  Israel  alone  that  God  will  meet  the  Exod.  19:6; 
world?     What  will  be  Israel's  relation  to  the  world  at      32  .-si.2 
large?     Does  the  materialistic  conception  continue  to 

the  end  in  spite  of  the  prophetic  teaching? 

(c)  Is  \hz  sinfulness  of  man's  nature  more  definitely  Lev.  4:35;  9:3; 
and  frequently  expressed  than  any  other  quality  ?    What          ' 


•     ^1.      /•  r  •  •      ^1         -i      i  -^  •  ~>  Pss.  51  ; 

is  the  form  of  expression  most  common  in  the  ritual  ?  in      90:8;  41:4; 
the  Psalter? 

T>.  Sin.  —  (a)  Have  there  been  different  stages  in  the  Josh.,  chap.  7; 

Deut.  7:  25; 
growth  of  the  priestly  idea  of  sin?     What,  for  example,      8:19;  g-.st; 

.,.      ,  11:16:25:13-16. 

was  the  prevailing  idea  in  the  patriarchal  time  under  the  Lev.  4:  11,13, 

primitive    Semitic    worship?      What,   later,    when    the      chap/ief 

Numb.  15:22  ff 
prophets  have  given  their  message  ?     What,  still  later, 

when    the  fulness  of   the  monotheistic  conception    has 
come  to  be  realized  ? 

(fr)  Is  it  true  that  the  idea  of  sin  is  always  and  every- 
where simply  a  corollary  of  the  idea  of  God?  What  c/.  §92,  n. 
connection  may  be  traced  in  the  development  of  the 
priestly  system  between  these  two  ideas  ?  How  shall 
we  explain  the  growth,  among  the  Hebrews,  of  the  inten- 
sity of  feeling  concerning  sin? 

(c)  Is  it  true  that  the  different  Hebrew  words  for  sin  Lev.  4:3;  16:16; 

,     ,       .  ,  20:  20;  Numb. 

express  various  phases  of  the  idea  as   they  were  recog-      15:28;  Deut. 

17:2. 


266 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Amos  5:7,  ioff., 
15;  Hos.  2:  13; 
4:6;  6:6ff.; 
Lev.  18  :  1-5  ; 
15:31;  6:  iff.; 
5:i4ff. 


Pss.  51  ;  36  :  1-4  ; 
39:i;  53:  i. 


Lev.,  chap.  16; 
Numb.  19 :  i  10. 


Ezod.  12:3:  16:  i : 
Lev.  4 : 13 ; 
Numb.  35 : 24 ; 
Ps.  74:8. 


Pss.  2:6;  9:  ii ; 

48:12;  51:18; 

53:6;  126:1; 

Isa.  i  :8:  14:32; 

28: 16;  Jer.  26: 

18;  50:5- 
Amos  i :  2. 
Lev.  24:8;  26:42. 


Gen.  i :  27-30 ;  9 : 
8-17;  17:1-14; 
Ezod.  31  :i6f. 


Ezra  9:1-4;  chap. 
10 ;  Neh..  chaps. 
9, 10 ;  Lev.  4 : 
13  ff . ;  chap.  25. 


Isa.  8 : 16  18. 


Isa.  7:3;  10 : 20- 

22. 
Jer.  31 :  29  f. 


Ezek.,  chaps.  18, 
33,  40-48. 


nized  by  the  Hebrews  ?  What  are  the  more  important 
of  these  words  (in  English),  and  what  is  the  distinctive 
meaning  of  each  ?  What,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  the 
meaning  of  the  word  (hattath),  commonly  translated  sin? 

(d]  Can  a  distinction  be  made  between  the  priestly 
and  the  prophetic  conceptions  of  sin?  Does  Wisdom 
furnish  any  varying  ideas  ?  Wherein  consists  the  difference 
between  the  priestly  conception  of  sin,  as  expressed  in 
the  Psalter  and  the  ritual,  and  that  which  is  found  in  the 
Assyrian  penitential  psalms  and  corresponding  ritual  ? 

(f)  How  may  forgiveness  of  sin  be  secured  ?  What 
is  the  essential  idea  in  the  teaching  concerning  atone- 
ment as  it  appears  in  connection  with  the  ritual  ? 

4.  The  Church. —  (a)  Does  this  word  really  belong 
to  Old  Testament  thought  of  any  school  ?  What  is  the 
usage  of  the  terms  "congregation"  and  "synagogue"? 
Is  "  Zion  "  a  priestly  or  a  prophetic  word  ?  What  general 
significance  does  it  have  aside  from  its  literal  meaning  ? 
What  is  the  distinctive  meaning  of  two  other  common 
phrases,  "the  Covenant  people,"  and  "the  theocracy"? 

(b}  Was  it  with  the  inner  or  outer  sense  of  the  terms 
cited  above  that  the  priestly  element  had  most  to  do  ? 
Was  there  a  time  after  which  the  inner  sense  received 
greater  consideration  ? 

(c)  Did  the  great  priestly  narrative  [P]  lay  stress  upon 
certain  covenants,  viz.,  with  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  and 
Moses  ?     What  bearing  did  these  covenants  have  upon 
the  later  conception  of  the  church  ? 

(d)  Was  Judaism  a  kingdom  or  a  church  ?     Was  the 
ruling    power  a  monarchy  or   a    hierarchy?     Did    the 
priestly  element,  therefore,  really  become  a  church  sys- 
tem ?  and  were  the  institutions  of  worship  precursors  in 
thought  as  well  as  in  form  of  the  idea  of  the  church  ? 

(e)  Was  the  company  made  up  of  Isaiah  and  his  dis- 
ciples the  first  step  away  from  the  national  community 
to  the  church  community?     Did  Isaiah's  teaching  of  the 
remnant  prepare  the  way  for  Jeremiah's  teaching  of  indi- 
vidualism, and  the  two  together  thus  furnish  the  basis 
for  the  church  idea?     Did  Ezekiel  continue  to  develop 
this   thought  in  the  direction  of  a  church  community 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       267 

made  up  of  those  who  were  circumcized  of  heart?    Were  jer. i:x;  Ezek. 

i :  3. 

Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  priests  as  well  as  prophets? 

(/)  In  what  way  did  the  period  of  the  exile  during 
which  worship  in  the  usual  sense  was  impossible  contri- 
bute  to   the  development  of   the  church   community? 
Did  this  period  also  make  more  prominent  the  observance   cf.  §§  us  and 
of  the  sabbath  and  the  service  of  prayer?     Did  Ezekiel   Ezek'.  8:1;  14:1; 

20:  i. 

gather  together  the  people  for  exhortation  ?    What  indi- 
cations are  found,  in  Ezra's  times  and  later,  of  the  growing  Ezra  10:  iff.; 
.,.,  i  !•         <•  ir  Weh.  9:  iff. 

habit  of  assembling  for  prayer  and  for  the  reading  and 

interpretation  of  Scripture? 

(g)  If  we  may  understand  that  back  and  under  all 
institutions  thought  is  to  be  found,  and  if  we  measure  the 
importance  of  the  thought  by  the  number  of  the  institu- 
tutions  involved,  as  also  by  the  acknowledged  character 
of  the  institutions,  is  it  not  true  that  the  church,  with  all 
that  it  represented  before  the  times  of  the  Christian 
church,  was  one  of  the  most  essential  subjects  of  thought 
in  the  priestly  element? 

§  284.  Many  of  the  Ideals  of  Modern  Church  Life  and  Worship  are 
the  direct  contribution  of  the  priestly  element  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  word  "inheritance"  is  perhaps  a  better  word  in  this  con- 
nection than  "contribution."  Some  of  these  ideals  are  institutions; 
and  some,  aspirations  of  the  most  holy  character.  Consider  and 
formulate  in  some  detail  the  following  propositions : 

1.  That  the  Christian  church  goes  back  directly  to  the  synagogue 
community. 

See :  J.  A.  SELBIE,  art.  "Congregation,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  S.  C. 
GAYFORD,  art.  "Church,"  ibid.;  BACKER,  art.  "Synagogue,"  ibid.;  J.  A.  ROBINSON,  art. 
"Church,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  I.  J.  PERITZ,  art.  "Synagogue,"  ibid.;  SCHURER, 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  Division  II,  Vol.  II,  pp.  52-89, 
243-52;  ZAHN,  Forschungen  zur  Geschichte  des  Neuetestamentlichen  Canons,  Vol.  II 
(1883),  p.  165;  IDEM,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament,  Vol.  I,  pp.  66  f. ;  HATCH, 
The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 

2.  That  the  Christian  service  of  song,  prayer,  and  exhortation  goes 
back  to  the  Jewish  temple  ritual  and  the  exercises  of  the  synagogue. 

See:  chap,  xviii;  WEISZACKER,  The  Apostolic  Age  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  246,  254,  258. 

3.  That  the  beginning  of  the  modern  Bible  in  form  and  idea  dates 
from  the  priestly  reform    of   Josiah's   times  when  Deuteronomy  was 
published. 


268  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See:  CORNILL,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  89  f. ;  F.  H.  WOODS,  art.  "Old  Testament 
Canon,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  WII.DEBOER,  The  Origin  of  the  Canon 
of  the  Old  Testament,  pp.  22-25. 

4.  That  the  conception  of  the  clergy  as  distinct  from  the  laity  goes 
back  to  the  Levitical  priesthood. 

See:  §§62f.;  and  HATCH,  The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches, 
pp.  141  f. ;  CORNILL,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  87  f. 

5.  That  the  idea  of  the  mission  of  the  church  to  the  world  at  large 
goes  back  to  the  commission  of  Israel  to  be  a  priest  nation. 

See:  Exod.  19:6;  Isa.  42:1-7;  61:6;  i  Pet.  2:5,  9,  and  HOLZINGER,  Exodus,  p. 
67 ;  DlLLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie,  pp.  457  f. ;  G.  A.  SMITH, 
The  Book  of  Isaiah,  Vol.  II,  pp.  237  ff. 

6.  That  the  thought  of  bringing  God  into  the  world  comes  from 
the  determination  of  the  Jewish  saints,  under  priestly  influence,  to  live 
lives  of  such  purity  and  holiness  as  to  make  God  introduce  the  messi- 
anic times,  of  which  there  had  been  dreams,  but  as  yet  no  realization. 

See  :  CHEYNE,  Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile,  pp.  80  f. ;  MONTEFIORE,  The 
Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp.  321  f. 

7.  That  the  highest  ideals  of  mankind  touching  the  soul's  contact 
with  God  have  come  from  the  experiences  of  Jewish  saints  expressed  in 
song  for  purposes  of  Jewish  worship  (/'.  e.,  the  Psalms). 

See :  §§  275-277 ;  and  PEROWNE,  The  Book  of  Psalms  (8th  ed.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  25-40  ; 
KlRKPATRiCK,  The  Book  of  Psalms  (Cambridge  Bible),  Vol.  I,  pp.  Ixxviii  ff. 

8.  That  the  Lord's  Supper  is  the  continuation  of  the  Jewish  Paschal 
feast. 

See:  PLUMMER,  in  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  145;  J.  A. 
ROBINSON,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  col.  1419. 

9.  That  the  Lord's  day,  Sunday,  is  the  offspring  of  the  Jewish  sab- 
bath. 

See:  HESSEY,  Sunday,  its  Origin,  History,  and  Present  Obligation  (Bampton 
Lecture,  5th.  ed.,  1889);  H.  R.  GAMBLE,  Sunday  and  the  Sabbath  ("Golden  Lectures" 
for  1900-1901);  N.  J.  D.  WHITE,  art.  "Lord's  Day,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible;  ZAHN,  Geschichte  des  Sonntags  vornehmlich  in  der  alten  Kirche;  G.  A.  DEISS- 
MANN,  art.  "  Lord's  Day,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

10.  That  the  Christian   Easter  celebration  is  the  continuation  of 
the  spring  feast  which  has  come  down  to  us  through  the  Jewish  Pass- 
over feast. 

See:  HITZIG,  Ostern  und  Pftngsten  (1837-38);  DUCHESNE,  La  question  des 
origines  du  culte  chrttien  (1889),  pp.  226  ff.;  CANON  VENABLES,  art.  "Easter," 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

11.  That  Thanksgiving  day  is  the  modern  representative  of   the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles. 


ESSENTIAL    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT       269 

See:  Deut.  16:13-15;  and  A.  T.  CHAPMAN,  art.  "Feast  of  Tabernacles," 
HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  BENZINGER,  art.  "Feast  of  Tabernacles,"  Ency- 
clopedia Biblica. 

12.  That   the    more  widely  accepted    theories   of   the  atonement 
(whether  right  or  wrong)  rest  fundamentally  upon  the  Old  Testament 
doctrine  of  sacrifice. 

See:  J.  O.  F.  MURRAY,  art.  "Atonement,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible; 
DALE,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement;  WILSON,  Hulsean  Lectures  on  the  Atonement 
(1899);  SCHULTZ,  "The  Significance  of  Sacrifice  in  the  Old  Testament,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV  (1900),  pp.  257-313;  ARCHIBALD  SCOTT,  Sacrifice,  its 
Prophecy  and  Fulfilment  ("Baird  Lecture,"  1892-93). 

13.  That  the  New  Covenant,  a  more  accurate  expression  for  the 
New  Testament  now  commonly  used,  was  first  conceived  and  expressed 
in  its  fundamental  principles  by  an   Old  Testament  priest  (who  was 
also  a  prophet). 

See  :  Jer.  31:  31  ff.;  and  A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  art.  "Covenant,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible;  McCLYMONT,  art.  "New  Testament,"  ibid. 

14.  That  the  Christian  practice  of  fasting  had  its  direct  origin  in 
the  usage  which  grew  up  in  later  Judaism. 

See:  §§152-154;  and  J.  S.  BLACK,  art.  "Fasting,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica; 
BENZINGER,  art.  "Fasting,  Fasts,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  C.  J.  BALL,  art.  "Fasting 
and  Fasts,"  SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893). 

15.  That  the  Christian  rite  of  baptism  is  historically  (through  John 
the  Baptist)  and  logically  (moral  uncleanness  taking  the  place  of  cere- 
monial   uncleanness),  the   successor    to    the  Jewish    rite   of    baptism, 
practised  as  a  means  of  restoration  from  a  state  of  ceremonial  unclean- 
ness,  and  employed  in  the  case  of  proselytes. 

See:  PLUMMER,  art.  "Baptism,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  J.  A. 
ROBINSON,  art.  "Baptism,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  W.  ELWIN,  art.  "Baptism," 
SMITH'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893). 

§  285.  Permanent  Truth  of  a  most  precious  kind  was  wrought  out 
through  this  long  laboratory  process,  along  with  much  which,  of 
course,  was  temporary  and  ephemeral.  Consider  and  formulate,  among 
other  great  and  fundamental  truths  of  an  eternal  character,  those 
relating  to  — 

i.  The  Holiness  of  God,  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Levitical  system,  in  which  it  occupies  a  fundamental  position. 

See:  J.  SKINNER,  art.  "Holiness  in  the  Old  Testament,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible;  BAUDISSIN,  Studien  zur  Semitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
3-142;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (2d  ed.)  pp.  325  f.; 
A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Old  Testament  Theology,  pp.  144-60;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament 
Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  166  ff. 


2/0  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

2.  The  filthiness  of  sin,  especially  as  symbolized  in  certain  details 
of  the  Levitical  system,  which  undoubtedly  were,  however,  only  the 
tangible  representation  of  previous  prophetic  thought. 

See :  KOBERLE,  Siinde  und  Gnade  im  religiosen  Leben  des  Volkes  Israel  bis  auf 
Christum  (1905),  pp.  325-57,  415-571;  BERNARD,  art.  "Sin,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible;  DAVIDSON,  Old  Testament  Theology,  pp.  203-34;  TENNANT,  The  Origin 
and  Propagation  of  Sin;  IDEM,  The  Sources  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Fall  and  Original 
Sin;  CLEMEN,  Die  Christliche  Lehre  von  der  Siinde. 

3.  The  forgiveness  of  sin,  as  illustrated  by  the  ceremonial  of  the 
priestly  system. 

See:  KOBERLE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  597-638;  BETHUNE-BAKER,  art.  "Forgiveness," 
HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
geschichte  (2d  ed.  1893),  PP-  394~4°3;  DAVIDSON,  Old  Testament  Theology,  pp.  315  ff. 

4.  Vicarious  suffering,  as  involved  in  the  doctrine  of  sacrifice. 

See:  BAIRD,  Sacrifice,  its  Prophecy  and  Fulfilment;  SCHULTZ,  "The  Significance 
of  Sacrifice  in  the  Old  Testament,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV  (1900), 
pp.  257-313;  DRIVER,  art.  "Offer,  Offering,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible; 
TH.  NAVILLE,  Les  sacrifices  ttvitiques  et  f  expiation  (1891). 

5.  The  ecclesiastical  state,  as  pictured  by  Ezekiel. 

See:  Ezek.,  chaps.  40-48,  and  the  commentaries  on  these  chapters,  especially 
those  of  DAVIDSON  (Cambridge  Bible),  KRAETZSCHMAR  (Hand-Kommentar  zum 
Alien  Testament),  BERTHOLET  (Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Allen  Testament),  and 
SKINNER  (Expositor's  Bible). 

§  286.  The  Ethical  Influence  of  the  Priestly  Element  is  one  which 
can  be  felt  more  easily  than  it  can  be  described,  (i)  Analyze  this 
element  and  point  out  the  various  individual  factors  in  it  which,  one 
may  believe,  would  tend  to  an  ethical  uplifting  of  those  who  conscien- 
tiously followed  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  priestly  ceremonial. 
(2)  Consider,  on  the  other  hand,  the  factors  which  might  be  expected 
to  prove  injurious  ethically.  (3)  Would  some  of  these  factors  for 
good  vary  in  their  influence,  producing  one  result  in  certain  cases,  and 
a  different  result  in  still  other  cases  ?  (4)  What,  upon  the  whole, 
would  be  the  general  ethical  influence  of  the  system  ? 

§  287.  Pre-natal  Christianity  and  the  Priestly  Element. —  Much  of 
that  which  was  later  called  Christianity  really  existed  before  the 
coming  of  Jesus.  This  is  true  of  teachings  and  ideals  which  were 
distinctively  prophetic,  and  of  those  which  were  characteristic  of 
the  sage,  as  well  as  of  those  which  were  peculiarly  priestly  in  their 
origin  and  character.  All  these  elements,  as  they  existed  together  in 
Judaism,  may  figuratively  be  called  pre-natal  Christianity.  Endeavor 
to  reconstruct  this  embryonic  Christianity,  and  decide  what  part  or 
portion  of  the  whole  was  this  priestly  element,  as  separated  from  the 
other  elements  of  prophecy  and  wisdom. 


APPENDIXES 

A.  THE  VOCABULARY  OF  WORSHIP;  LISTS  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT 
WORDS. 

B.  CLASSIFIED  LISTS  OF  IMPORTANT  BOOKS. 

C.  NEW  LITERATURE  ON  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT. 


APPENDIX   A. 


THE    VOCABULARY    OF    WORSHIP. 

The  following  list,  though  not  designed  to  be  exhaustive,  aims  to 
include  all  the  more  important  words  relating  to  worship  and  to  the  great 
ideas  that  find  expression  in  the  ritual.  The  list  of  Greek  equivalents 
contains  the  various  renderings  employed  in  the  Septuagint  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  rarer  ones,  and  of  those  evidently  based 
upon  different  readings  from  those  now  found  in  the  Massoretic  Text. 


•f)  (TKtjvi)  TOV  fj.aprvpiov 


(Neh.  7:65) 
apd.    6pKiff/j.6s,    opxos, 
,  Kardpa 


(or 

(tides,  Exod.  28:8;  39:5), 
lepareia  (Hos.  3: 4),  <rroXiJ 
(2  Sam.  6:14;  I  Chron. 
15=27) 

(       (T7To56j,  ffTrodla,  Koirpla  (Job 
2:8) 


L"X        tivffia,    t>vaiafffj.a,    Kdpirufj.a, 

Kdpwoffts,  6\OKa.tTU(JLa 
Tr\r)fj./j.e\eTv,   d/xapr diets',  dy- 


a/itap- 
ria 

Tr\i}/jine\e'iv,  iv  anaprlais  elvai 
(Gen.  42:21) 

,  d/xaprt'a, 


rTVlDX       ftXeros,   'A-ffrdprri  (2   Chron. 
15:16;  24:18) 

10:6,  7) 


tent  of  meeting 

Urim 

Urim  and  Thummim 

oath,  curse 

God 

ingathering,  harvest 

binding  oath,  vow 

1 
Y  ephod 

ashes 

ark 

an  offering  made  by  fire 

offend,  be  guilty 

offense,     trespass,    guilt, 
trespass  offering 

guilty 

wrongdoing,  guilt 
Asherah(A.V.,  "grove") 
white  linen 


273 


2/4  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD 

x,  rA  irpu- 


ra 


ri 

r&yova 

i"V03       tyr)\6v  (tyijXi}),  /3a/xd,  d/3a/xd 
(Ezek.      20: 29),      /3w^6s, 

78:58;    I    Kings    10:13), 
efSuXov  (Ezek.  16:16) 

,dffre?os(Judg.  3:17), 
^AcXe*cT6s,  7raxi5s  (Ezek. 
34=3) 


n3"Q      e6\oyta,  et\oyeiv,  e6\oyi)T6s 
x,  <5<r^7j  ^8e?a 


,     K\i)povo(j.la,     Spiov, 
6vofj.a 

i)6pas,  irpo- 
,  yeiruv 

/MTa,    /35e- 
\6yfjMTa,    5i.avorifj.aTa,    £v- 


ai'/xa 


ffirodta, 

was.  oficos 

Oveiv, 

0v/j.i8.v,  Ovfudfeiv,  irpoff- 
<f>tpeiv  (Deut.  17:1),  &cf>J- 
reii'  (2  Chron.  28:  23) 

,  (tvtrla,  6vffla<rna,  6vfj.t- 
a/^a,  trifrdyiov  (Am.  5:25), 
o\OKai>TW[M  (Exod.  10:25) 


rat 


an 
aan 


BJTH  M9^  vfOfjLi)vLa,  > 
HTn  art\Q{>vt.ov,  Ijirap  (Lev.  7:30) 
afiapTdveiv,  ^a/j.aprdvfiv.  dSi- 
Kelv.  fvvotlv  nand.  dia/LLaprd- 

VflV,    tKK\lVfil>. 

va.v,  fjiiai 
d<payvifeiv,    ayvifreiv, 

»•,  f>avri- 


TESTAMENT 
first-fruits 
high-place 

fat 


covenant 
blessing 

spice,  balsam 

boil,  seethe 
lot 

sojourner,  stranger 
idols 


shrine,  innermost  room  in 

Solomon's  temple 
blood 
fatness,  fat  ashes 

temple 

slaughter  for  sacrifice 


sacrifice 


feast,  pilgrim-feast 
make  a  pilgrimage,  cele- 
brate a  feast 
new  moon,  month 
breast  of  animals 
to  sin 


to  atone,  make  expiation 
for 


APPENDIXES  275 

SI3H       d/*apTwX6s,    dco/x6s,    CUT^/STJJ,        sinful,  sinner 
d/xaprfa,  dvo^la  s:n 


i,  fieraKlviiffis  (Zech.     ! 
\  /     /T  v       J-  sin 

13:1),  KaKla.  (Jer.  15:13),     I 

KapSla(Ps.  32:5), 
(i  Kings  16:2) 


Y  sin-offering 

i,  pveXfa  (Gen.  45:18),        fat 
7aX<£  (Ps.   119:70;  Ezek. 
34:3),     dirapxtf     (Numb. 
18:29,  30,  32),   ffvffla  (i 
Kings  8:64),  (rcipKas(Ezek. 
44=7) 
•  pn       ^6/u.oy,  irp6<rTa.y/j.a,  8iKaiufj.a,        a  statute 

5tO<7ToX^,  TpOTTT^,  ff'UVTO.izLS, 

56erts 

mn  d.va.Tfdefu>,TiffijAvov^  dvdfle/j.a,  devoted  thing,  ban 
dvd6r)/Mi,  d<t>6pi<r/JM,  dirdi- 
Xe«x,  diroXX(/ei»',  ffayrfvij, 
^o\66pevfj.a  ( i  Kings 
15:21),  (5X<?0pios  (i  Kings 
20:42) 

',  irepiffT-fiOiov,        breast-piece,     or     sacred 

pouch 

etc  to  dip,  immerse 

Ka.6a.pbv  efvat,  S./j.e/j.wTov  efwi,        be  clean,  pure 
,a7«'/fetj',d^a- 

elvai,    dKdQaprov        be  or  become  unclean 


veiv  (to  defile), 

(to      defile),     d»ca0ap0-/a, 


,   diro-        uncleanness 
Ka6r)fj.tv>],     fj.ia.vcr  is     (Lev. 
13:  44),  fj.ialveiv 

y/o,        ram,  ram's  horn 
,    dtyai- 
(Numb.  36:4) 

liver 
priest 

,  6X6/cai/Tos  holocaust 

(2   Kings    23: 5),        idol-priests 
lepds  (Zeph.  1:4) 


276  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

IE 5       t!-i\d<ra.ff()cu.,i\d<rKf(r6ai,d<j>U-        to  atone 
wit    (Isa.  22:14),   'Xdf'en'. 
(Exod.  30:10), 
(Isa.  6:7), 
)eut.32:43), 

&9(fovv  (Isa.  18:23),  d-yid- 
fetv  (Exod.  29:33) 
"1B3       AXXd-y/ua,  t!-l\affna,   irepiicd- 
6apfj.a.  \irrpov 


Xepo<5/3, 
Xepov 
povftiv 


roXi}  (isa.  22:21) 

Kaipos.  fopr^,  &pa, 
(Judg.  20:38),  ir 
/Mprvpla,  Spot  (Exod.  9:  5) 


TlttTTJS      ^oX/i6j, 

r^pas  (Isa.  24:  16),  ^81} 
<pid\r),    iffx&pa-    (2    Chron. 
4:11),    KoXuirTi}p    (Numb. 
4:14) 


ris  xe'PaJ  (Exod.  28:41), 


Aj  X€VaJ  (Ezek. 
43:26),  TCTeX«w/u^  cos  (Lev. 
21:10) 


Xo/3/5e$,  firapvffr^p  (Exod. 
2S:38),  tirapvffTpls  (l 
Kings  7:49) 

Ovffla,  duipov,  Ovaiaff/J.a.  |^- 
i'ioi'.  Trpo<r<popd 


(Isa.  30:1) 


dvo/j.la,    dwoffra- 
ffia,  d7r6<rTo<rij,  dffvvfaffla, 
;,    irapdiTTW/M,   Trapa- 

v.  26:40) 
Se/cdrij,  rd  $£KCLTOV,  firid^Ka- 
TOV,  fK<f>6piov  (Mai.  3:10), 
dwapx1/!  (Deut.  12:6) 
ffTi}Xij,    <rr-fi\uffis  (2  Kings 
l8:l8),<TTOXos(Jer.  43:13), 
inrftffraffa   (Ezek.  26:1  1), 
(Isa.  6:13) 


atonement,  ransom 

propitiatory 
cherub 


tunic 

appointed  time,  meeting- 
place 

altar 
melody,  psalm 

bowl,  basin 


install,  consecrate 


consecrated 

installation 
tongs 


gift,  offering,  grain-offer- 
ing 
molten  image 

transgression 


tenth  part,  tithe 
pillar,  sacred  stone 


277 

nlSZ'Q  iHSTQ       #fVjUos,  ra  &£V/JM  unleavened  bread 

7112)3  €VTO\-/I,  evraXfjia,  irpbffTayiM,  commandment 
v6fws  (Prov.  6:20),  SiKat- 
u/j.a  (i  Kings  2:3),  /cp/<m 
(Deut.  ii:i),  f>f)fj.a  (Prov. 
3:1),  <puv/i  (Deut.  28:9, 
13),  656s(Ps.  119=151) 

i    ayiov,    ayiaffT'/ipiov,    rb        sacred  place,  sanctuary 
iepbv,  rb  Tjyia<r/j.tvov,  ayia- 


apves,  IffTfaTdi^voi  fallings 

yplfiv.  d\ei(f>eiv,  5ta%pieiJ'  anoint 

%ptff/j,a,  xp/o"is,  xpto-T6j'  anointing 

ffKi)v-fi,  (TKiJcwp-a,  KaraffK^vu-  tabernacle 
<rts,  ol/cos,  ffvvayuy/i 

$,     wpo-  watch,  charge 


5ta- 
irapefj.- 


,  Kpifna,  Kpir^piov,  <rijy-       judgment 

,  ot/ccu'oxm. 


Stdrofts,    fftivral-is,    irp6ff- 


gift 

,  d<pai-        voluntary  offering 
pe/j-a    (Exod.  35:29),    0/j.o- 
\oyta,     6/ooX67ws      (Hos. 
14:5),      ff<j>dyiov      (Lev. 
22:23) 
m?       XwPt<r/"^s)  /"•CTaKiVrjo'is,  fjiera-        impurily 


aKaOapffia,  dveldur/jia,  &<pe- 

'X^,  6/010X07/0,  d&pov  vow 

'Idyttevos,  Naf/p,  r)yia<r/j.tvos,  one  consecrated,  devoted, 
pofipcuos,     ay  vela,    ^710$,  a  Nazirite 


),  dyvifffj.6s,  dyveta,  £yio?,        consecration, Naziriteship 


the  bronze  serpent 
drink-offering 
,  Nafltpcuoi,        Nethinim 
(Ezra   8:17),    ol 


njJD       ju^rpoj',  /xerp7;T?}s,  ot<j>l  a  measure  of  flour  or  of 

grain 


278 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


7PO 


v,  \pieiv 


HOD 


<r6ai 


ffla.. 


,  6\OKdpTTU>/J.a,    0V- 

.   dvdfiaffis 


doiK-r]fj.a,  d/xapri'a. 
dp.dprrifj.a,  dvofj-ia.  dvb- 
fj.r/ij.a.  irapavofjiia.,  '  (Prov. 
5:22),  xaKla.  (I  Chron. 
21:8;  Jer.  13:22;  16:  18), 

a      (Ezek.      33  :  9), 

(Gen.  4:13). 


iepfia  (2  Kings  10:20),  0epa- 
?re£a  (Joel  1:14;  2  :15), 
dpyela  (Isa.  1:14),  i 


ira.pa.ffKevdfeiv(lsa..  50:42), 


(Exod.  40:23;  Lev.  24:8), 
(Gen.  22  :  9), 
(Ezek.  23:41), 
(i  Chron.  12:8), 
i.  iaovv.  6/M>iovv 
(Ps.  40:  5;  Isa.  40:18), 
Pot]6eiv  (i  Chron.  12:36), 
dva\a/j.(-Sdv€ii>  (Jer.  43  :  3), 
twirptireiv  (Job  32:14), 
Kaleiv  (Exod.  27:21;  Lev. 
24:2,  3),  K^vreiv  (Job  6:4), 
ri/j.avy  Ti/J.oypd(f>eiv  (  2 
Kings  23:35) 

SfKHTOVV 


&0VTOV, 


^,  y\6fji/jia, 


7XU7TT6V, 


anoint 
fine  flour 
transgress 


congregation 
whole  burnt-offering 


iniquity 


arrange,  set  in  order  (the 
parts  of  a  sacrifice) 


to  tithe 

tenth  part 

unclean  thing,  refuse 

passover 
idol,  image 

bell  on  high  priest's  robe 


APPENDIXES 


2/9 


D1S 


,    cufrurrdvai. 
,    dSiKeiv,    d/JLaprd- 
veiv,  irXavav,  #co/xos.   ira- 

,      dfj.apria,     irapa- 


dfftpeia,      ddiKia, 

dfj-apria,    d/udpTij/xa,    dpo- 
Au'a,  di>6/j.rifj.a..  TrapdTTTWjua, 


2£       elictav, 

1TOS 


(Job  I:  5),  So£dfeiJ'  (Isa. 
5.16),  StewT^XXeii'  (Jos. 
20:17),  /ca^a7tdfe»',  d^a- 
/St/SdfEtir  (Jer.  51:28) 
#7105,  dyiaxriiivi],  dylafffM, 
dyidfav,  ayia<Tfi6s,  ayvl- 


la,  ffvvaywyji,  5xXos, 
ffvvtdpiov  (Prov.  26:26), 
(rtforcwis  (Gen.  49  :  6), 
7rX?}0os  (Exod.  12:6;  2 
Chron.  31:18),  Xa6s  (i 
Kings  12:3) 
6vfj.tdv,  Ovfudfeiv, 


pftv,     tiriOfatv,     6vffid£eii> 
(Exod.  40:27) 


fMvrela.,  fJMvreiov,  olit>vLfffj.a 
Swpov,  K\i)pos  (Neh.  10:34) 
la.  (Hos.  14:?) 


Sp/cos,  Mpiaos  (Numb.  5:21), 

evop/cos  (Neh.  6:18). 
ffdpfiarov,  ffdpfiara,  tpdoftds, 


curtain  (in  tabernacle  be- 
fore Most  Holy  Place) 
to  rebel,  transgress 


transgression 


fasting,  fast 
to  fast 
image 

sacred,  holy 

set      apart,      consecrate, 
dedicate 


sanctity,  holiness 


temple-prostitute 
assembly,  congregation 


offer  burnt-offering,  offer 
incense 


smoke,  odor,  incense 
divination 
offering,  oblation 
scent,  odor 
soothing  odor 
oath 

sabbath 


<ruTT?ipiov,  €ipi)viic6v,  Owlet 
(TWTijpfoi/,  <ruTijpia,  rb  rov 
ffurrjpiov 


trumpet 

thank  -  offering, 
offering 


peace- 


280 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


$\aiov,  a\eifj./M,  iriwv  fat,  oil 

itO'QIBn  nSTB      «™ST?7sd0&7ewj(Deut.i5:9),  year  of  release 

31:10) 

aZWcrij,  eTroivos,  P/uws,  701;-  praise,  song  of  praise 


rrnn 


rnin 


nnn 


nsnan 


v,  afceo-tj,  e^ 


thanksgiving,  praise 
a,    d/cd-        abomination 


,  avo^ia 
d 
,  Shirts,  C/it- 


,  0fpa<plv,  Sij\ol  (Hos. 
3:  4),  T&  K€t>ord<pia  (  I  Sam. 
!9:I3)»  T*  TXinrrd  (Ezelc. 
21:21),  oi  &iro<p6eyy6fj.evoi 
(Zech.  10:2) 


,    rd,    rfXeta    (Ezek. 


2:63) 


direction,  instruction,  law 
prayer 

gift-offering 
Teraphim 


petition 
favor,  request 
Thummim 

wave-offering 


APPENDIX  B. 

IMPORTANT    BOOKS    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT. 

I.    Dictionaries  and  Encyclopaedias. 
J.  HASTINGS,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vols.  I-IV  (1898-1902),  with  an  extra  volume, 

containing  supplementary  articles,  indexes,  and  maps  (1904). 
T.  K.  CHEYNE  AND  J.  S.  BLACK,  Encyclopedia  Hiblica,  Vols.  I-IV  (1899-1903). 
W.  SMITH,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893). 
HERZOG-HAUCK,  Realencyklopddie  fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (3d  ed. 

1896  ff.;  fourteen  volumes  have  now  been  published). 

II.    Introductions  to  Old  Testament  Literature. 

S.  R.  DRIVER,  An  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.  1897). 

J.  E.  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  The  Hexateuch,  2  vols.  (1900). 

J.  E.  CARPENTER,  The  Composition  of  the  Hexateuch  (1902). 

C.  A.  BRIGGS,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  (2d  ed.  1897). 

W.  E.  ADDIS,  The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  2  vols.  (1893,  1898). 

W.  R.  SMITH,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (2d  ed.  1892). 

C.  H.  CORNILL,  Einleilung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (3d  ed.  1896). 


APPENDIXES  28l 

H.  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893). 

W.  VON  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Sucker  des  Alien  Teslamentes  (1901). 

E.  KONIG,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1893). 

A.  KUENEN,  Historisch-critisch  Onderzoek  naar  het  ontstaan  en  de  verzameling  van 

de  boeken  des  Ouden   Verbonds,  3  vols.  (2d  ed.  1885-89).     German  translation, 

Historisch-kritische  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes  (1887-92). 

English  translation  of  Vol.  I,  The  Hexateuch  (1886). 
G.  WILDEBOER,  De   Letterkunde  des   Ouden    Verbonds  naar  de  tijdsorde   van   haar 

ontstaan   (1893;    3d  ed.    1903).      German  translation,  Die  Litleratur  des  Alten 

Testaments  (1895). 
C.  STEUERNAGEL,  Allgemeine  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  ("  Handkommentar  zum 

Alten  Testament,"  1900). 

in.    Hebrew  Institutions  and  Archaeology. 

W.  H.  GREEN,   The  Hebrew  Feasts  in   Their  Relation  to  Recent  Critical  Hypotheses 

Concerning  the  Pentateuch  (1885). 

A.  SCOTT,  Sacrifice^  Its  Prophecy  and  Fulfillment  ("Baird  Lecture,"  1892-93). 
W.  VON  BAUDISSIN,  Die  Geschichte  des  alttestamentlichen  Priesterthums  (1889). 
W.  NovfA.CK.tLeAr&utb  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894). 
I.  BENZINGER,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894). 

IV.    Semitic  Institutions  and  Archaeology. 

W.  R.  SMITH,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (1889  5  2d  ed.  1894). 

G.  A.  BARTON,  A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins  —  Social  and  Religious  (1902). 

W.  R.  SMITH,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (1885  ;  2d  ed.  1903). 

MORRIS  JASTROW,  JR.,   The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898).      German 

translation,  being  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  English;  Vol.  I  (1905). • 
L.  W.  KING,  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythology  (1899). 
A.  H.  SAYCE,  The  Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia  (1902). 
S.  I.  CURTISS,  Primitive  Semitic  Religion  To-Day  (1902). 
WELLHAUSEN,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidenlhums  (=  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  Ill, 

1887;  2d  ed.  1897.) 

LAGRANGE,  Etudes  sur  les  religions  Slmitiques  (1903). 
SCHWALLY,  Semitische  Kriegsaltertiimer,  Heft  I  (1901). 
BAUDISSIN,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  2  vols.  (1876,  1878). 
BAETHGEN,  Beitrdge  sur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte  (1888). 

V.    The  Code  of  Hammurabi  and  Hebrew  Legislation. 

R.  F.  HARPER,  The  Code  of  Hammurabi  (1904). 
•  C.  H.  W.  JOHNS,  The  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the  World  (1903). 
C.  H.  W.  JOHNS,  Article  "The  Code  of  Hammurabi,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the 

Bible  (Extra  Volume,  1904). 

S.  A.  COOK,  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  (1903). 
C.  EDWARDS,  The  Hammurabi  Code  and  the  Sinaitic  Legislation  (1904). 
C.  F.  KENT,  "  The  Recently  Discovered  Civil  Code  of  Hammurabi,"  Biblical  World, 

Vol.  XXI  (1903),  pp.  175-90. 

A.  H.  SAYCE,  "The  Legal  Code  of  Babylonia,"  American  Journal  of  Theology  (1904), 
pp.  256-66. 


282  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

D.  H.  LYON,  "The  Structure  of  the  Hammurabi  Cote,"  Journal  of  the  American 

Oriental  Society,  Vol.  XXV  (1904),  pp.  248-65. 
V.  SCHEIL,  Memoires  de  la  delegation  en  Perse,  Tome  IV  (1902). 
V.  SCHEIL,  La  lot  de  Hammurabi  (1904). 
H.  WlNCKLER,  Die  Gesetze  Hammurabis  (1903). 
H.  WlNCKLER,  Die  Gesetze  Hammurabis  in  Umschrift  und  Uebersetzung  herausgegeben. 

Dazu  Einleitung,  u.  s.  w.  (1904). 
J.  KOHLER  UND  F.  E.  PfiiSER,  Hammurabfs  Gesetz,  Vol.  I :  Uebersetzung,  juristische 

Wiedergabe,  Erlauterung  (1903). 
D.  H.  MiJLLER,  Die  Gesetze  Hammurabis  und  ihr  Verhdltnis  zur  Mosaischen  Gesetz- 

gebung  sowie  zu  den  XI J  Tafeln  (1903). 
H.  GRIMME,  Das  Gesetz  Chammurabis  und  Moses  (1903). 
S.  OETTLI,  Das  Gesetz  Hammurabis  und  die  Thora  Israels  (1903). 
J.  JEREMIAS,  Moses  und  Hammurabi  (1903). 
G.  COHN,  Die  Gesetze  Hammurabfs  (1903). 
A.  ROSENBACHER,  Moses  und  Hammurabi  (1904). 
ED.    KONIG,    "  Hammurabis   Gesetzgebung   und   ihre   religionsgeschichtliche  Trag- 

weite,"  Beweis  des  Glaubens  (1903),  pp.  169-80. 
LAGRANGE,  "Le  code  de  Hammurabi,"  Revue  biblique  (1903),  pp.  27-51. 

VI.    Old  Testament  Theology  and  Religion. 

H.  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (German,  1869;  5th  ed.  1896;  English,  1892). 
C.  G.  MONTEFIORE,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("Hibbert  Lectures,"  1892). 
A.  DUFF,  Old  Testament  Theology,  2  vols.  (1891,  1900). 
A.  KUENEN,   The  Religion  of  Israel,  3  vols.  (Dutch,  1869-70;  English  translation, 

1882-83). 

A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  The  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament  (1904). 
J.  ROBERTSON,  The  Early  Religion  of  Israel  ("  Baird  Lecture,"  1889). 
PIEPENBRING,  The  Theology  of  the  Old  Testa ment  (1886;  English  translation,  1893). 
K.  BUDDE,  The  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile  (1899). 
T.  K.  CHEYNE,  Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile  (1898). 

R.  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeshichte  (1893;  2d  ed.  1899). 
K.  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897). 
A.  DILLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie  (1895). 

APPENDIX    C. 

NEW    LITERATURE    ON    THE    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT. 

P.  63,  note  i — on  Hexateuchal  Analysis,  etc.:  H.  G.  MITCHELL,  The  World  Before 
Abraham  (1901);  DRIVER,  Commentary  on  Genesis  (1904);  C.  F.  KENT,  Beginnings  of 
Hebrew  History  (1904);  TESCH,  Setzt  der  Prophet  Amos  autoritatives  Gesetz  voraus 
(1895);  PAUL  VETTER,  "Die  Zeugnisse  der  vorexilischen  Propheten  iiberdem  Penta- 
teuch," Theologische  Quartalschrift  Vol.  LXXXIII  (1901),  pp.94~ll2,  187-207. 

P.  71,  §  71 — on  The  Priest:  J.  TAYLOR,  art.  "Nethinim,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary 
of  The  Bible  (1900);  A.  WALKER,  "The  Levitical  Priesthood  — a  Study  in  Social  De- 
velopment," Journal  of  Biblical  Literature  Vol.  XIX  (1900),  pp.  124-31;  BENZINGER, 
art.  "  Nethinim,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  A.  BERTHOLET, 


APPENDIXES  283 

art.  "Priests,"  ibid.;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  A.  BERTHOLET,  art.  "  Levites,"  ibid.;  GRAF 
VON  BAUDISSIN,  art.  "  Priests  and  Levites,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  The  Bible  (1902); 
FRANTS  BUHL,  art.  "  Hoherpriester,"  Realencyklopddie  fur  protestantise  he  Theologie 
und  Kirche  Vol.  VIII,  (3d  ed.  1900). 

P.  72,  §72,  topic  6  —  on  The  Priest  in  other  Semitic  Nations:  W.  H.  BENNETT, 
art.  "Molech,  Moloch,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1900);  G.  F.  MOORE,  art. 
"  Moloch,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  IDEM,  art.  "  Nature- Worship,"  ibid. ;  IDEM, 
art.  "Tithes,"  ibid.;  J.  JEREMIAS,  art.  "Ritual,"  ibid.;  M.  J.  LAGRANGE,  "Les  pretres 
babyloniens  d'apres  une  publication  re"cente,"  Revue  biblique,  1901,  pp.  392-413; 
SPIEGELBERG,  Der  Stabkultus  bei  den  Agyptern  (1903);  W.  WRESZINSKI,  Die  Hohen- 
pr tester  des  Amon  (1904). 

P.  80,  §  8 1, — on  The  Place  of  Worship :  L.  W.  BATTEN,  "The  Sanctuary  at  Shiloh 
and  Samuel's  Sleeping  Therein,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature  Vol.  XIX  (1900),  pp. 
124-31;  O.  C.  WHITEHOUSE,  art.  "  Pillar,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  The  Bible  (1900); 
G.  F.  Moore,  art.  "  High  Place,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1901);  G.  A.  DEISSMANN,  art. 
"Mercy  Seat,"  ibid.  (1902);  G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Massebah,"  ibid.;  BENZINGER,  art. 
"The  Brazen  Sea,"  ibid.  (1903);  G.  H.  Box;  art.  "  Temple,  Temple  Service,"  ibid.; 
BENZINGER,  art,  "Tabernacle,"  ibid.;  T.  W.  DAVIES,  art.  "Temple,"  HASTINGS'S  Dic- 
tionary of  The  Bible  (1902);  A.  R.  S.  KENNEDY,  art.  "Sanctuary,"  ibid.;  IDEM,  art. 
"Tabernacle,"  ibid.;  J.  T.  MARSHALL,  art.  "Shekinah,"  ibid.;  A.  H.  SAYCE,  "Recent 
Biblical  Archaeology;  Tree  and  Pillar  Cult,"  Expository  Times,  Vol.  XIII  (1902)  pp. 
309  f.;  W.  E.  BARNES,  art.  "Jachin  and  Boaz,"  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  1904, 
pp.  447-51;  J.  MEINHOLD,  Die  Lade  Jahves  (1900);  IDEM,  "Die  Lade  Jahves;  ein 
Nachtrag,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken  Vol.  LXXIV  (1901),  pp.  593-607;  A. 
LOTZ,  Die  Bundeslade  (1901);  K.  BUDDE,  "Die  Urspriingliche  Bedeutung  der  Lade 
Jahves,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XXI  (1901),  pp.  193-7; 
W.  RIEDEL,  "Der  Kultusort  nach  dem  Bundesbuch,  Alttestamentliche  Untersuchungen 
(1902),  pp.  48-51;  M.VERNE,  "  Notes  surles  sanctuaires  de  la  region  chanane"enne 
qui  furent  fre'quente's  concurrement  par  les  Israelites  et  les  nations  voisines,"  Revue 
de  fhistoire  des  religions,  Vol.  XLIII  (1901),  pp.  352-54;  P.  TORGE,  Ascherah  und 
Astarte  (1902);  A.  BUCKLER,  Das  Synedrium  in  Jerusalem.und  die  grosse  Beth-Din 
in  der  Quader-Kammer  des  Jerusalem- Tempels  (1902);  J.  PRESTEL,  Baugeschichte  der 
jiidischen  Heiligtilmer,  und  die  Tempel-Salomos  (1904). 

Pp.  90  ff.,  §94 — on  Sacrifice:  CHEYNE,  art.  " Incense,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1901);  W.  P.  PATERSON,  art.  "Sacrifice,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1902); 
S.  I.  CURTISS,  "  Discoveries  of  a  Vicarious  Element  in  Primitive  Semitic  Sacrifice,"  Ex- 
positor, 6th  series,  Vol.  VI  (1902),  pp.  128-34;  IDEM,  "The  Origin  of  Sacrifice  among 
the  Semites,"  ibid.  (1904),  pp.  461-72;  S.  R.  DRIVER,  art.  "Propitiation,"  HASTINGS'S 
Dictionary  of  The  Bible  (1902);  S.  LANGDON,  "  History  and  Significance  of  Carthagi- 
nian Sacrifice,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XXIII  (1903),  pp.  79-93;  G.  F. 
MOORE,  art.  "Sacrifice,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1903);  R.  DE  LA  GRASSERIE,  "Du 
role  sociale  du  sacrifice  religieux,"  Revue  de  V histoire  des  religions,  July-August,  1901; 
J.  C.  MATTHES,  "Zoenoffers,"7<j>/<?>-'.r  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Vo\.  11(1904),  pp.  69-92. 

Pp.  104  ff.,§io6 — on  Feasts:  CHEYNE,  art.  "Purim,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902); 
BENZINGER, artt.  "New  Moon,"  "New  Year,"  "Passover,"  "Pentecost,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica  (1902),  and  "Feast  of  Tabernacles,"  ibid.  (1903);  A.  T.  CHAPMAN,  art.  "Feast 
of  Tabernacles,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  The  Bible  (1902);  J.  A.  McCLYMONT,  art. 


284  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

"  Purim,"  ibid.;  J.  E.  H.  THOMSON,  "The  Samaritan  Passover,"  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1902),  pp.  82-92;  BELLELI,  "The  High  Priest's  Procession  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  October,  1904;  W.  RIEDEL,  "Die 
drei  grossen  jiidischen  Feste,"  Alttestamentliche  Unlersuchungen  (1902),  pp.  52-63;  FR. 
BUHL,  art.  "Laubhiittenfest,"  Realencyklopddiefurprotestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche, 
Vol.  XI  (3d  ed.  1902),  pp.  303-6;  HOCHFELD,  "Die  Entstehung  des  Hanukafestes," 
Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XXII  (1902),  pp.  264-84;  S. 
HANOVER,  Das  Festgesetz  der  Samaritaner  nach  Ibrahim  ibn  Jakub  (1904);  B.  D. 
EERDMANS,  "De  groote  Verzoendag,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift  (1904),  pp.  17-41. 

Pp.  1 14  ff.,  §  120  —  on  Sabbath:  TOY,  "  Earliest  Form  of  the  Sabbath,"  Journal  of 
Biblical  Literature  (1899),  pp.  191  ff.;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  BENZINGER,  art.  "Jubilee," 
Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1901);  DRIVER,  art.  "Sabbath,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  The 
Bible  (1902);  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  art.  "Sabbatical  Year,"  ibid.:  W.  R.  SMITH, 
MARTI,  AND  CHEYNE,  art.  "Sabbath,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1903);  T.  G.  PINCHES, 
"  Sapattu,  the  Babylonian  Sabbath,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology, 
Vol.  XXVI  (1904),  pp.  51-56;  W.  RIEDEL,  "  Der  Sabbath,"  Alttestamentliche  Unter- 
suchungen  (1902),  pp.  74-89;  BOHN,  Der  Sabbat  im  Alien  Testament  (1903). 

Pp.  126  ff.,  §  134  —  on  Clean  and  Unclean :  A.  MACALISTER,  artt.  "Leprosy"  and 
"Medicine,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1900);  A.  R.  S.  KENNEDY,  artt. 
"Food"  and  "Meals,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1901);  C.  CREIGHTON,  artt.  "Leprosy, 
Lepers,"  and  "Medicine,"  ibid.;  A.  S.  PEAKE,  art.  "Unclean,  Uncleanness,"  HAST- 
INGS'S Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1902);  S.  A.  COOK,  "Israel  and  Totemism,"  Jewish 
Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  XIV  (1902),  pp.  413-48;  FR.  VINC.  ZAPLETAL,  Der  Totem- 
ismus  urid  die  Religion  Israels  (1901) ;  L.  G.  LEVY,  "Du  totemisme  chez  les  He"breux," 
Revue  des  etudes  juives,  Vol.  XLV  (1902),  pp.  13-26. 

Pp.  133  f.,  §  139 — on  Prayer:  J.  A.  SELBIE,  art.  "Praise,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  (1902);  E.  R.  BERNARD,  art.  "Prayer,"  ibid.;  CHEYNE,  art.  " Prayer," 
Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  JUSTUS  KOBERLE,  Die  Motive  des  Glaubens  und  der 
Gebetserhbrung  im  Alien  Testament  (1901). 

P.  135,  §  142 — on  Vows:  W.  H.  BENNETT,  art.  "Rechabites,"  HASTINGS'S  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (1902);  A.  S.  PEAKE,  art.  "Vow,"  ibid.;  W.  R.  SMITH  AND  T.  K. 
CHEYNE,  art.  "Nazirite,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Vows, 
Votive  Offerings,"  ibid. 

Pp.  140  f.,  §  151  — on  The  Oath:  M.  A.  CANNEY,  art.  "  Oath,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1902). 

Pp.  142  f.,  §  154 — on  Fasting:  BENZINGER,  art.  "Fasting,  Fasts,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica  (1901);  J.  J.  P.  VALETON,  "Jets  over  Israelietischen  Vastendagen,"  Theologisch 
Tijdschrift,  Vol.  XXXV  (1901),  pp.  521-29;  M.  TH.  HOUTSMA,  "Nog  eenmal  de 
Israelietische  Vastendagen,"  ibid.,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1902),  pp.  334-41. 

P.  MS,  §  157 — on  Oracles,  Ephod,  etc.:  T.  C.  FOOTE,  "The  Ephod,"  Journal  of 
Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XXI  (1902),  pp.  1-47;  A.  R.  S.  KENNEDY,  art.  "Urim  and 
Thummim,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1902);  G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Urim  and 
Thummim,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1903);  ELHORST,  "De  Ephod,"  Teyler's  Theolo- 
gisch Tijdschrift,  Vol.  II,  No.  2  (1904). 

Pp.  146 f.,  §  160 — on  Magic  and  Divination:  O.  C.  WHITEHOUSE,  art.  "Soothsayer, 
Soothsaying,  Sorcery,"  HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  (1902);  H.  ZIMMERN  AND 


APPENDIXES  285 

DAVIES,  art.  "Magic,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  CHEYNE,  art.  "Serpent,"  §§3  ff., 
ibid.;'  G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Teraphim,"  ibid.;  F.  SCHMID,  "Die  Zauberei  und  die 
Bibel,"  Zeitschrift  fur  katholische  Theologie,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  107-30;  H.  DUHM,  Die 
bbsen  Geister  im  Alten  Testament  (1904). 

Pp.  148  f.,  §  163 — on  Mourning  Customs,  etc.:  MORRIS  JASTROW,  "The  Tearing 
of  Garments  as  a  Symbol  of  Mourning,"  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society, 
Vol.  XXI  (1901),  pp.  23-39;  R.  H.  CHARLES,  art.  "  Eschatology,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica  (1901);  BENZINGER,  art.  " Mourning  Customs,"  ibid.;  M.  JASTROW,  "Baring 
the  Arm  and  Shoulder  as  a  Sign  of  Mourning,"  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alttestamentliche 
Wissenschajt,  Vol.  XXII  (1902),  pp.  117-20;  J.  A.  BEET,  "The  Immortality  of  the 
Soul:  Before  Christ,"  Expositor,  Sixth  Series,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  50-61;  J.  GARNIER,  Wor- 
ship of  the  Dead  (1904);  J.  C.  MATTHES,  "  Rouw  en  doodenvereering  in  Israel,"  Theolo- 
gisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1900),  pp.  97-128,  193-224;  Vol.  XXXV  (1901),  pp. 
320-49;  J.  WOHLGEMUTH,  Die  Unsterblichkeitslehre  in  der  Bibel  (1901};  G.  BEER,  Der 
biblische  Hades  (1902);  SARTORI,  Die  Speisung  der  Toten  (1903);  C.  L.  DELETRA, 
Recherches  sur  les  vestiges  d'un  culte  des  morts  chez  les  anciens  Hebreux  (1903);  J. 
SCHREINER,  Elysium  und  Hades  (1903) ;  F.  Roux,  Essai  sur  la  vie  apres  la  mart  chez 
les  Israelites  (1904);  F.  HROZNY,  "Zur  Hollenfahrt  der  I§tar,"  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes  (1904),  pp.  323-30;  G.  WISSOWA,  "Die  Anfange  des 
romischen  ^zrenkvLltes,"  Archiv  fur  Religionswissenschaft  (1904),  pp.  42-57;  A.  LODS, 
"Les  Israelites  croyaient-ils  a  la  vie  future?"  Revue  chretienne  (1904),  pp.  283-300, 
359-76- 

Pp.  150  f.,  §166  —  on  Circumcision:  H.  GUNKEL,  "Ueber  die  Beschneidung  im 
alien  Testament,"  Archiv  fur  Papyrus- For schung,  Vol.  II  (1902),  pp.  13-21;  P.  WEND- 
LAND,  "Die  hellenistischen  Zeugnisse  liber  die  agyptische  Beschneidung,"  ibid.,  pp. 
23-31;  ULRICH  WILCKEN,  "Die  agyptische  Beschneidung,"  ibid.,  pp.  4-13;  KUTNA, 
"Studien  iiber  die  Beschneidung,  IV,"  Monatsschrift  fur  Geschichte  und  Wissenschaft 
des  Judentums,  Vol.  XLVI  (1902),  pp.  193-205. 

Pp.  167  ff ,  §  181  —  on  The  Deuteronomic  Code :  CULLEN,  7 he  Book  of  the  Cove- 
nant in  Moab  (1903);  S.  FRIES,  Der  Gesetzschrift  des  Konigs  Josia  (1903). 

Pp.  i8off.,  chaps,  xiv  and  xv — on  The  Priestly  Document :  DRIVER,  art. "Law," 
HASTINGS'S  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1900);  G.  HARFORD-BATTERSBY,  art.  "Leviti- 
cus," ibid.;  IDEM,  art.  "Numbers,"  ibid.;  G.  F.  MOORE,  art.  "Leviticus,"  Encyclo- 
pedia Biblica  (1902);  IDEM,  art.  "Numbers,"  ibid.;  G.  B.  GRAY,  Commentary  on 
Numbers  ("International  Critical  Commentary,"  1903);  J.  HALEVY,  "Influence  du 
Code  Sacerdotal  sur  les  prophetes,"  Revue  semitique,  Vol.  IX  (1901),  pp.  1-6; 
HOLZINGER,  Numeri  erkldrt  ("Kurzer  Handkommentar,"  1903);  ERBT,  Die  Sicher- 
stellung  des  Monotheismus  (1903). 

Pp.  225  ff.,  §  245  —  on  Ezra  and  Nehemiah:  W.  H.  KOSTERS  AND  T.  K.  CHEYNE, 
art.  " Nehemiah,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica  (1902);  A.  E.  COWLEY,  art.  "Samaritans," 
ibid.  (1903);  P.  RIESSLER,  "Uber  Nehemias  und  Esdras,"  Biblische  Zeitschrift,  1904, 
pp.  15-27,  145-53- 


IlTOEX 


INDEX 


ALTAR,  2,  16,  74  f.,  76. 

ARAMAIC  SECTIONS  OF  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 

AND  DANIEL,  229. 
ARK,  2,  1 6,  18,  20,  75,  78. 
ASHERIM,  18,  20,  29. 
ATONEMENT:    day  of,  5,  53,  96,  103  f., 

113,  142. 

BAN,  129,  138 f.;   literature  on,  139. 
BAPTISM,  269. 
BELIEF,  i. 

BLESSINGS  AND  CURSINGS,  136-38;  litera- 
ture on,  137  f. 
BLOOD:   use  of,  86,  89. 
BULL-WORSHIP,  18. 
BURNT-OFFERING,  4,  18,  38. 

CALF-WORSHIP,  20. 

CANON:  formation  of,  34. 

CENTRALIZATION  OF  WORSHIP,  76,  78,  99. 

CHRISTIANITY:  pre-natal,  270. 

CHRONICLES,  BOOKS  OF,  208-17;  scope  of 
history  in,  208;  date  of,  208  f.;  sources 
of,  209-11,  216;  treatment  of  sources 
in,  211 ;  use  of  genealogies  in,  211  f.; 
chronological  and  statistical  character 
of,  212;  literary  style  of,  213;  selection 
of  material  in,  213;  religion  of,  213  f.; 
idealistic  character  of,  2i4f.;  litera- 
ture on,  215  f.;  numbers  in,  217. 

CHURCH:  origin  of,  196;  purpose  of,  196; 
and  state,  separation  of,  34,  42,  43,  52. 

CIRCUMCISION,  149-51 ;  literature  on,  150  f. 

CLAN-GOD,  14. 

CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN,  32,  36, 119-30, 138; 
in  early  period,  119-21;  in  middle 
period,  121,  122;  in  Ezekiel,  122  f. ;  in 
later  period,  123-26;  literature  on,  126- 
28;  Hebrew  words  for,  129;  among  non- 
Hebrews,  129. 

CLERGY:  distinction  between,  and  laity, 
38,  268. 

COMMUNITY:  Israel  a  religious,  43,  55; 
origin  of  idea  of,  196;  purpose  of,  196. 

CONDUCT,  i. 

COVENANT:  Book  of  the,  25  f.;  Code, 
155  f- 


CURSE,  i36f. 
CYRUS:   policy  of,  44. 

DANCING,  6,  15,  19,  20,  22. 

DAVIDIC  PSALMS,  23,  237-40. 

DECALOGUE,  24  f. 

DEUTERONOMY:  discovery  of,  29  f.;  156  f; 
teaching  of,  31  ff.,  165;  authorship  of, 
157-65;  point  of  view  and  coloring  of, 
i59f.;  language  and  style  of,  i6of.; 
material  of,  161  f.;  its  relation  to  other 
Old  Testament  literature,  162  f;  and 
the  New  Testament,  163  f.;  a  forgery? 
i64f.;  structure  and  general  character 
of,  165-67;  literature  0^*167-69. 

DEUTERONOMIC  WRITERS,  167. 

DIVINATION,  17,  145-47. 

DREAM,  6,  17,  21. 

DRINK-OFFERING,  4. 

EPHOD,  65,  120,  143-45. 
ESDRAS  I.:  relation  to  Ezra,  228  f. 
ETHICS,  i 

EXCLUSIVENESS,    44,    55,    125  f.,    175  f. 

EXILE:  significance  of,  35,  195;  return 
from,  39,  46,  51. 

EZEKIEL,  37,  39;  work  of,  170-79;  histor- 
ical background  of,  i7of.;  prepara- 
tion of,  171  f.;  prophetic  work  of,  172  f.; 
dependence  upon  Jeremiah,  172; 
structure  and  character  of  chaps.  40- 
48, 174;  genuineness  of  book,  174;  ideas 
of  chaps.  40-48,  175;  literature  on, 
177-79. 

EZRA:  work  of,  48;  relation  to  Nehemiah, 
1 80,  181;  introduction  of  law,  i8of.; 
law  of,  what  was  it?  181;  relation  of 
chaps.  40-48  to  Priestly  Code,  187  f. 

EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH:  books  of,  218-29; 
scope  of  history  in,  218  f.;  unity  of,  220; 
unity  of  Chronicles  and,  220  f.,  225; 
date  of,  221  f.;  sources  of,  222  f.,  228; 
treatment  of  sources  in,  223  f.;  style  of, 
224;  religion  of,  225;  literature  on,  225- 
28. 

FIRST-FRUITS,  21,  31,  49. 
FASTS,  6,  36,  40,  45,  54,  103  f.,  141-43. 
269;  literature  on,  142  f. 


289 


2QO 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


FEASTS,  5,  15,  21,  32,  33,  36,  38,  53,  94- 
107,  176  f.;  Harvest,  18,  21,95;  Vintage, 
18;  at  Shiloh,  19;  of  Ingathering,  21, 
95;  of  Unleavened  Bread,  21,  32,  33, 
53>  95>  98>  i°i>  102;  of  Tabernacles, 
32.  33.  4°,  S3  f-»  95.  99.  102;  of  Pente- 
cost, 32,  95,  96;  of  Weeks,  33,  53,  95, 
99,  102 ;  of  Passover,  32,  38,  40,  53,  96, 
98,  100,  101,  102,  113;  of  New  Moon, 
38,  40,  53,  97,  102;  of  New  Year,  53;  in 
early  times,  94-98;  in  middle  period 
98-100;  in  Ezekiel,  loof. ;  in  later  pe- 
riod, 101-4;  literature  on,  104-6;  of 
Booths,  95,  113;  of  Sheep-shearing, 
97;  special,  97;  influence  of,  97;  of 
Trumpets,  102  f.,  113;  of  Purim,  104; 
Hebrew  words  for,  170;  among  non- 
Hebrews,  107. 

FUTURE  LIFE,  14. 

GENEALOGIES,  in  O.  T.,  217;  in  Chron- 
icles, 211  f.;  in  P.,  202  f.;  in  Ezra- 
Nehemiah,  229. 

GOD,  love  of,  33;  conception  of,  45,  95, 
96,  107,  175,  1 88,  207;  holiness  of,  45, 
55,  107,  130,  176;  Kingdom  of,  174  f. 

GREEK  PERIOD,  56  f. 

HEZEKIAH'S  REFORM,  28,  82. 
HIGH  PLACES,  2,  17,  22. 
HIGH-PRIEST,  47,  52,  65,  70. 
HISTORIES:    within    the   Hexateuch,  62; 

priestly,  62,  195-229;  origin  of,  196  f.; 

historical  character  of,  198  f.;  prophetic, 

197  f. 

HOLINESS — see  CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN. 
HOLINESS:   of  God,  45,  55,  265;  of  sanc- 
tuary. 55- 
HOLINESS  CODE,  63,  186. 

IDOLATRY,  31,  35  f.,  84,  90,  176. 
INCENSE-OFFERING,  4. 
INDIVIDUALISM,  43,  54  f.,  173. 

JOSIAH:   reform  of,  30  f.;  death  of,  35. 
JUBILEE:  year  of,  53,  114,  117. 
JUDAISM,  42,  46,  52,  54  f.;  Cornill  on,  57. 

LAW:   Levitical,  15,  43,  49,  50;  Deutero- 

nomic,  15,  29,  155-69;  early,  15  f.,  20, 

24;  codes  of,  61  f. 
LAWS,  7  f.,  17,  19,  20,  44. 
LEGAL  LITERATURE,  155-91. 
LEVITE,  18,  20,  31,  37, 39,  48,*52, 65, 66  f.; 

distinction  between  priest  and,  39,  66  f., 

68,  69,  176. 


LITERALISM  OF  PRIESTS,  257. 
LORD'S  SUPPER:   the,  268. 
LOST  WRITINGS  OF  HEBREWS,  217. 
LOT,  143-45- 

MAGIC,  54,   137,   145-47;  literature  on, 

146  f. 

MALACHI:    priestly  character  of,  40. 
MANASSEH:  reaction  under,  29. 
MARRIAGES:  mixed,  48,  49. 
MEAL-OFFERING,  38. 
MESSIANIC  EXPECTATIONS,  44. 
MONOTHEISM,  45,  55. 
MOON-FEASTS,  18,  32,  38,  109,  112. 
MOURNING  CUSTOMS:    147-49;  literature 

on,  148  f. 
Music,  6,  19,  20,  22,  40,  54. 

NAZIRITE,  134  f. 
NECROMANCY,  54. 
NEHEMIAH:  work  of,  47  f. 

OATHS,  139-41;  literature  on,  140  f. 
ORACLES,  6,  21,   143-45;  literature  on, 
144  f. 

PASSOVER,  32,  38,  40,  86,  96,  98,  125. 

PEACE-OFFERING,  4,  38. 

PENTATEUCH:   origin  of,  15,  19. 

PERSIAN  RULE,  51. 

PERSONIFICATION  IN  OLD  TESTAMENT, 
240  f. 

PILLARS:   sacred,  18,  20. 

PLACE  OF  WORSHIP,  1-3,  14,  16,  17  f., 
i9f->  3i>  33.  36»  37.  52  f-,  74~82;  in 
early  times,  74  f.;  in  middle  period,  75  f. ; 
in  Ezekiel,  76  f.;  in  later  period,  77  f.; 
literature  on,  78-80;  function  of,  82. 

POST-EXILIC  PERIOD:  characteristics  of, 
42  f. 

PRAYER,  6,  17,  18,  21,  22,  32,  36,  40,  45, 
54,  131-34;  literature  on,  133  f. 

PRIEST,  3,  16,  18,  20,  22,  31,  33  f.;  36,  37, 
38»  39.  47.  52>  63~73»  I26;  classification 
of,  70;  sanctity  of,  38,  68,  69,  175; 
support  of,  18,  31,  47,  48,  50,  65,  67, 
68,  70,  84,  89  f.;  in  early  times,  63-66; 
in  Deuteronomic  period,  66  f . ;  in  Eze- 
kiel, 67  f.,  176;  in  later  period,  68-70; 
literature  on,  70  f . ;  among  non-He- 
brews, 72;  outside  functions  of,  72;  as 
mediator,  73. 

PRIESTLY  CODE,  62  f.,  180-91;  date  and 
authorship  of,  181-85;  point  of  view 


INDEX 


291 


and  coloring  of,  182  f.;  language  and 
style  of,  183;  repetitions  between  P. 
and  other  legislation,  183^;  discrep- 
ancies between  P.  and  other  legislation, 
184  f.;  structure  and  contents  of,  185- 
87;  strata  within,  185;  relation  of  Ezek. 
chaps.  40-48  to,  187  f.;  principal  ideas 
of,  i88f.;  literature  on,  189-91. 

PRIESTLY  ELEMENT:  limitations  of,  257; 
corruption  in,  257;  essential  teachings 
of,  264  f.;  permanent  truth  in,  269  f. ; 
ethical  influence  of,  270. 

PRIESTLY  INFLUENCE:  basis  of  later,  195  f. 

PRIESTLY  NARRATIVE  IN  HEXATEUCH, 
195-207;  scope  of,  199;  gradual  growth 
of,  199  f.;  sources  of,  200  f. ;  legislation 
within,  201  f.;  systematic  character  of, 
202;  genealogical  material  within,  202  f; 
statistics  and  dates  within,  203 ;  repe- 
titiousness  of,  203  f . ;  selection  of 
material  in,  204  f.;  theology  of,  205  f.; 
literature  on,  206  f. 

PRIESTLY  NATION,  3,.  36,  72. 

PRIESTLY  SYSTEM:  characteristics  of,  258f. ; 
subjectivism  of,  258;  relation  to  proph- 
ecy, 259  f.;  purpose  of,  261  f.;  national 
character  of,  26if.  ;  relation  to  Messian- 
ism,  263  f.;  relation  to  Greek  thought, 
264. 

PROPHETS:  Relation  of  P.  toward  wor- 
ship, 22,  34,  38,  40,  62,  65,  67,  70,  73, 
75,  76,  78,  84  f.,  86,  90,  97,  100,  103, 
109,  no,  135. 

PROPITIATION,  45,  50,  53,  54,  176,  189. 
PSALM:    supersciptions  of,  234  f. 

PSALMS,  23,  233-53;  °f  early  period,  23; 
literature  on,  23;  of  second  temple, 
56;  significance  of,  56,  90;  priest  in,  71; 
scope  of  priestly  element  in,  233;  non- 
priestly  elements  in,  233;  problems  of, 
233-44;  tests  of  Davidic,  239  f.;  Macca- 
baean,  242  f . ;  priestly  element  in,  244  ff. ; 
of  Ascents,  245;  imprecatory,  253; 
Babylonian  penitential,  253. 

PSALTER:  historical  element  in,  235  f.; 
David's  contribution  to,  237  -40;  the 
"I"  of  the,  240  ff.;  editorial  element 
in,  243  f.;  as  a  Book  of  Prayer,  246  f.; 
as  a  Book  of  Praise,  247  f . ;  as  a  manual 
of  communion,  248  f.;  significance  of, 
for  priestly  system,  249;  literature  on, 
249-52;  origin  of,  252. 

REACTION  UNDER  MANASSEH,  29;  after 
Josiah,  35;  after  rebuilding  of  temple, 
46. 


REFORM  OF  HEZEKIAH,  28,  82 ;  of  Josiah, 
30  f.,  267;  of  Nehemiah,  47  f. 

REFUGE:   cities  of,  70. 

RELIGION:  its  constituent  elements,  i,  13; 
most  ancient  form  of  Semitic,  13  f. 

REVELATION:   channels  of,  i. 

SABBATH,  17,  18,  21,  32,  36,  38,  45,  48, 
49,  53,  108-18,  150;  in  early  times, 
108-10;  in  middle  period,  nof.;  in 
Ezekiel,  inf.;  in  later  period,  112-14, 
150;  literature  on,  114-17;  meaning  of 
Hebrew  word,  117;  among  non-He- 
brews, 117  f.;  origin  of,  109,  118. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR,  21,  32,  49,  53,  109  f., 
in,  112,  113  f. 

SACRIFICE,  3-5,  14  f.,  17,  18,  20  f.,  22, 

3i»  34,  36,  38,  40,  53.  83-93.  205; 
nature  of,  4,  14  f.,  18,  20  f.,  34,  45,  55, 
84,  89;  kinds  of,  4  f.,  38,  84,  85,  88; 
materials  of,  5,  88  f.;  human,  21,  29, 
32,  84,  86;  in  early  period,  83-85;  in 
middle  period,  85  f . ;  in  Ezekiel,  86  f . ; 
in  later  period,  87-90;  literature  on, 
90-92;  Hebrew  words  for,  93;  among 
non-Hebrews,  93;  origin  of,  93. 

SAGES:  attitude  of  toward  worship,  71, 
92,  117,  128,  135,  148,  150. 

SAMARITANS.  50  f. 
SCRIBES,  52. 

SEMITES:   contribution  of,  13. 
SENNACHERIB'S  INVASION,  28. 
SERPENT  WORSHIP,  18. 
SEVEN:   use  of  number,  118,  140. 
SIN:   conception  of,  55,  90,  96,  103,  107, 
176,  i88f.,  265!. 

SIN-OFFERING,  5. 

SKEPTICISM,  47. 

SLAVES:  release  of,  53,  in. 

SONGS  AND  HYMNS,  6  f.,  17,  19,  22,  23,  40, 

4i,  54- 

SOOTHSAYING,  54. 
SORCERY,  6,  18,  21,  22,  29,  32,  40,  137, 

145-47- 

SPRINGS:  as  abodes  of  deity,  2. 
STONES:   sacred,  2. 
SYNAGOGUE,  36,  43,  51  f.,  53,  81,  267. 

TABERNACLE,  2,  78,  184  f. 
TABOO,  120,  121,  138. 

TEMPLE,  2,  20,  37,  39,  48,  52  f.,  75,  77, 
78,  175;  tax,  49;  Samaritan,  50  f.;  81  f. 


2Q2 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


TENT  OF  MEETING,  2,  75. 

TERAPHIM,  16,  17. 

TIMES  OF  WORSHIP,  5,  17,  18,  21,  32,  36, 

38.  40,  53- 
TITHE,  32,  40,  47,  48,  49. 

TOTEMISM,   119  f.,   121,   123,   124. 

TREE-WORSHIP,  2,  18. 
TRESPASS-OFFERING,  4,  38. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM,  18,  65,  67,   143- 

45- 
VISIONS,  18,  21,  171  f.,  175. 


Vows,  6, 17, 18,  21,  32,  40,  54, 134  f.,  138; 
literature  on,  135. 

WAVE-OFFERING,  5. 

WITCHCRAFT,  18,  20,  22,  145-47. 

WOOD  FOR  BURNT-OFFERINGS,  49. 

WORSHIP,  i,  13,  34  f.;  corrupt,  47;  history 
of,  8,  13-57,  61;  periods  in  history  of, 
13,  15  f.,  27  f.;  primitive  stage  of,  16  f.; 
Canaanitish  stage  of,  16,  17  ff.;  proph- 
etic stage  of,  1 6,  19-22;  Canaanitish 
influence  on,  17;  Babylonian  influence 
on,  36  f.;  literature  of,  155. 


199 


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